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<\/a>The island was originally inhabited by the indigenous Ta\u00edno<\/a> people, who migrated from South America. The first Europeans arrived on 5 December 1492 during the first voyage of Christopher Columbus<\/a>, who initially believed he had found India or China. Columbus subsequently founded the first European settlement in the Americas, La Navidad<\/a>, on what is now the northeastern coast of Haiti. The island was claimed by Spain and named La Espa\u00f1ola, forming part of the Spanish Empire<\/a> until the early 17th century. However, competing claims and settlements by the French led to the western portion of the island being ceded to France in 1697<\/a>, which was subsequently named Saint-Domingue. French colonists established lucrative sugarcane plantations, worked by vast numbers of slaves brought from Africa, which made the colony one of the richest in the world.<\/p>\n In the midst of the French Revolution<\/a> (1789\u201399), slaves and free people of color<\/a> launched the Haitian Revolution<\/a> (1791\u20131804), led by a former slave and the first black general of the French Army, Toussaint Louverture<\/a>. After 12 years of conflict, Napoleon Bonaparte’s<\/a> forces were defeated by Louverture’s successor, Jean-Jacques Dessalines<\/a> (later Emperor Jacques I), who declared Haiti’s sovereignty on 1 January 1804\u2014the first independent nation of Latin America and the Caribbean, the second republic in the Americas, the first country to abolish slavery, and the only state in history established by a successful slave revolt. Apart from Alexandre P\u00e9tion<\/a>, the first President of the Republic, all of Haiti’s first leaders were former slaves. After a brief period in which the country was split in two, President Jean-Pierre Boyer<\/a> united the country and then attempted to bring the whole of Hispaniola under Haitian control, precipitating a long series of wars that ended in the 1870s when Haiti formally recognized the independence of the Dominican Republic. Haiti’s first century of independence was characterized by political instability, ostracism by the international community and the payment of a crippling debt to France. Political volatility and foreign economic influence in the country prompted the United States to occupy the country from 1915\u20131934. Following a series of short-lived presidencies, Fran\u00e7ois ‘Papa Doc’ Duvalier<\/a> took power in 1956, ushering in a long period of autocratic rule that was continued by his son Jean-Claude ‘Baby Doc’ Duvalier<\/a> that lasted until 1986; the period was characterized by state-sanctioned violence against the opposition and civilians, corruption and economic stagnation. Since 1986 Haiti has been attempting to establish a more democratic political system.<\/p>\n Haiti is a founding member of the United Nations<\/a>, Organization of American States (OAS)<\/a>, Association of Caribbean States<\/a>, and the International Francophonie Organisation<\/a>. In addition to CARICOM, it is a member of the International Monetary Fund<\/a>, World Trade Organization<\/a>, and the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States<\/a>. Historically poor and politically unstable, Haiti has the lowest Human Development Index in the Americas. Since the turn of the 21st century, the country has endured a coup d’\u00e9tat<\/a>, which prompted a U.N. intervention<\/a>, as well as a deadly earthquake<\/a> that killed over 250,000.<\/p>\n The island of Hispaniola, of which Haiti occupies the western three-eighths, has been inhabited since about 5000 BC by groups of Native Americans thought to have arrived from Central or South America. Genetic studies show that some of these groups were related to the Yanomami<\/a> of the Amazon Basin<\/a>. Among these early settlers were the Ciboney<\/a> peoples, followed by the Ta\u00edno, speakers of an Arawakan language<\/a>, elements of which have been preserved in Haitian Creole<\/a>. The Ta\u00edno name for the entire island was Haiti, or alternatively Quisqeya.<\/p>\n In Ta\u00edno society the largest unit of political organisation was led by a cacique<\/a>, or chief, as the Europeans understood them. The island of Hipaniola was divided among five ‘caciquedoms’: the Magua in the north east, the Marien in the north west, the Jaragua in the south west, the Maguana in the central regions of Cibao, and the Hig\u00fcey in the south east.<\/p>\n Ta\u00edno cultural artifacts include cave paintings in several locations in the country. These have become national symbols of Haiti and tourist attractions. Modern-day L\u00e9og\u00e2ne<\/a>, started as a French colonial town in the southwest, is beside the former capital of the caciquedom of Xaragua.<\/p>\n Navigator Christopher Columbus<\/a> landed in Haiti on 6 December 1492, in an area that he named M\u00f4le-Saint-Nicolas<\/a>, and claimed the island for the Crown of Castile<\/a>. Nineteen days later, his ship the Santa Mar\u00eda<\/a> ran aground near the present site of Cap-Ha\u00eftien. Columbus left 39 men on the island, who founded the settlement of La Navidad on 25 December 1492. Relations with the native peoples, initially good, broke down and the settlers were later killed by the Ta\u00edno.<\/p>\n The sailors carried endemic Eurasian infectious diseases to which the native peoples lacked immunity, causing them to die in great numbers in epidemics. The first recorded smallpox epidemic in the Americas erupted on Hispaniola in 1507. Their numbers were further reduced by the harshness of the encomienda<\/a> system, in which the Spanish forced natives to work in gold mines and plantations.<\/p>\n The Spanish passed the Laws of Burgos, 1512\u201313<\/a>, which forbade the maltreatment of natives, endorsed their conversion to Catholicism, and gave legal framework to encomiendas. The natives were brought to these sites to work in specific plantations or industries.<\/p>\n As the Spanish re-focused their colonization efforts on the greater riches of mainland Central and South America, Hispaniola became reduced largely to a trading and refuelling post. As a result piracy became widespread, encouraged by European powers hostile to Spain such as France (based on \u00cele de la Tortue) and England.<\/p>\n The Spanish largely abandoned the western third of the island, focusing their colonization effort on the eastern two-thirds. The western part of the island was thus gradually settled by French buccaneers<\/a>; among them was Bertrand d’Ogeron, who succeeded in growing tobacco and recruited many French colonial families from Martinique<\/a> and Guadeloupe<\/a>. In 1697 France and Spain settled their hostilities on the island by way of the Treaty of Ryswick of 1697<\/a>, which divided Hispaniola between them.<\/p>\n France received the western third and subsequently named it Saint-Domingue, the French equivalent of Santo Domingo<\/a>, the Spanish colony on Hispaniola. The French set about creating sugar and coffee plantations, worked by vast numbers of slaves imported from Africa, and Saint-Domingue grew to become their richest colonial possession.<\/p>\n The French settlers were outnumbered by slaves by almost 10 to 1. According to the 1788 Census, Haiti’s population consisted of nearly 25,000 Europeans, 22,000 free coloreds and 700,000 African slaves. In contrast, by 1763 the white population of French Canada, a far larger territory, had numbered only 65,000. In the north of the island, slaves were able to retain many ties to African cultures, religion and language; these ties were continually being renewed by newly imported Africans. Some West African slaves held on to their traditional Vodou<\/a> beliefs by secretly syncretizing it with Catholicism.<\/p>\n The French enacted the Code Noir<\/a> (“Black Code”), prepared by Jean-Baptiste Colbert<\/a> and ratified by Louis XIV<\/a>, which established rules on slave treatment and permissible freedoms. Saint-Domingue has been described as one of the most brutally efficient slave colonies; one-third of newly imported Africans died within a few years. Many slaves died from diseases such as smallpox<\/a> and typhoid fever<\/a>. They had low birth rates, and there is evidence that some women aborted fetuses rather than give birth to children within the bonds of slavery. The colony’s environment also suffered, as forests were cleared to make way for plantations and the land was overworked so as to extract maximum profit for French plantation owners.<\/p>\n As in its Louisiana colony<\/a>, the French colonial government allowed some rights to free people of color (gens de couleur), the mixed-race descendants of European male colonists and African female slaves (and later, mixed-race women). Over time, many were released from slavery and they established a separate social class. White French Creole fathers frequently sent their mixed-race sons to France for their education. Some men of color were admitted into the military. More of the free people of color lived in the south of the island, near Port-au-Prince<\/a>, and many intermarried within their community. They frequently worked as artisans and tradesmen, and began to own some property, including slaves of their own. The free people of color petitioned the colonial government to expand their rights.<\/p>\n The brutality of slave life led many slaves to escape to mountainous regions, where they set up their own autonomous communities and became known as Maroons<\/a>. One Maroon leader, Fran\u00e7ois Mackandal<\/a>, led a rebellion in the 1750s, however he was later captured and executed by the French.<\/p>\n Inspired by the French Revolution of 1789 and principles of the rights of man<\/a>, the French settlers and free people of color pressed for greater political freedom and more civil rights. Tensions between these two groups led to conflict, as a militia of free-coloreds was set up in 1790 by Vincent Og\u00e9<\/a>, resulting in his capture, torture and execution. Sensing an opportunity, in August 1791 the first slave armies were established in northern Haiti under the leadership of Toussaint Louverture inspired by the Vodou houngan (priest) Boukman, and backed by the Spanish in Santo Domingo \u2013 soon a full-blown slave rebellion had broken out across the entire colony.<\/p>\n In 1792, the French government sent three commissioners with troops to re-establish control; to build an alliance with the gens de couleur and slaves commissioners L\u00e9ger-F\u00e9licit\u00e9 Sonthonax<\/a> and \u00c9tienne Polverel<\/a> abolished slavery in the colony. Six months later, the National Convention, led by Maximilien de Robespierre<\/a> and the Jacobins<\/a>, endorsed abolition and extended it to all the French colonies.<\/p>\n Political leaders in the United States, which was a new republic itself, reacted with ambivalence, at times providing aid to enable planters to put down the revolt. Later in the revolution, the US provided support to native Haitian military forces, with the goal of reducing French influence in North America and the Caribbean.<\/p>\n With slavery abolished, Toussaint Louverture pledged allegiance to France, and he fought off the British and Spanish forces who had taken advantage of the situation and invaded Saint-Domingue. The Spanish were later forced to cede their part of the island to France under the terms of the Peace of Basel<\/a> in 1795, uniting the island under one government. However an insurgency against French rule broke out in the east, and in the west there was fighting between Louverture’s forces and the free people of color led by Andr\u00e9 Rigaud<\/a> in the War of the Knives (1799\u20131800)<\/a>. Many surviving free people of color left the island as refugees.<\/p>\n After Louverture created a separatist constitution and proclaimed himself governor-general for life, Napol\u00e9on Bonaparte in 1802 sent an expedition of 20,000 soldiers and as many sailors under the command of his brother-in-law, Charles Leclerc<\/a>, to reassert French control. The French achieved some victories, but within a few months most of their army had died from yellow fever<\/a>. Ultimately more than 50,000 French troops died in an attempt to retake the colony, including 18 generals. The French managed to capture Louverture, transporting him to France for trial. He was imprisoned at Fort de Joux<\/a>, where he died in 1803 of exposure and possibly tuberculosis<\/a>.<\/p>\n The slaves, along with free gens de couleur and allies, continued their fight for independence, led by generals Jean-Jacques Dessalines, Alexandre P\u00e9tion and Henry Christophe<\/a>.<\/p>\n The rebels finally managed to decisively defeat the French troops at the Battle of Verti\u00e8res<\/a> on 18 November 1803, leading the first ever nation to successfully gain independence through a slave revolt. Under the overall command of Dessalines, the Haitian armies avoided open battle, and instead conducted a successful guerrilla campaign against the Napoleonic forces, working with diseases such as yellow fever to reduce the numbers of French soldiers. Later that year France withdrew its remaining 7,000 troops from the island and Napoleon gave up his idea of re-establishing a North American empire, selling Louisiana (New France) to the United States, in the Louisiana Purchase<\/a>. It has been estimated that between 24,000 and 100,000 Europeans, and between 100,000 and 350,000 Haitian ex-slaves, died in the revolution. In the process, Dessalines became arguably the most successful military commander in the struggle against Napoleonic France.<\/p>\n The independence of Saint-Domingue was proclaimed under the native name ‘Haiti’ by Dessalines on 1 January 1804 in Gona\u00efves and he was proclaimed “Emperor for Life” as Emperor Jacques I by his troops. Dessalines at first offered protection to the white planters and others. However, once in power, he ordered the massacre of nearly all white men, women, children<\/a>; between January and April 1804, 3,000 to 5,000 whites were killed, including those who had been friendly and sympathetic to the black population.<\/p>\n Only three categories of white people were selected out as exceptions and spared: Polish soldiers, the majority of whom had deserted from the French army and fought alongside the Haitian rebels; the small group of German colonists invited to the north-west region; and a group of medical doctors and professionals. Reportedly, people with connections to officers in the Haitian army were also spared, as well as the women who agreed to marry non-white men.<\/p>\n Fearful of the potential impact the slave rebellion could have in the slave states, U.S. President Thomas Jefferson<\/a> refused to recognize the new republic. The Southern politicians who were a powerful voting block in the American Congress prevented U.S. recognition for decades until they withdrew in 1861 to form the Confederacy<\/a>.<\/p>\n The revolution led to a wave of emigration. In 1809, 9,000 refugees from Saint-Domingue, both white planters and people of color, settled en-mass in New Orleans, doubling the city’s population, having been expelled from their initial refuge in Cuba by Spanish authorities. In addition, the newly arrived slaves added to the city’s African population.<\/p>\n The plantation system was reestablished in Haiti, albeit for wages, however many Haitians were marginalized and resented the heavy-handed manner in which this was enforced in the new nation’s politics. The rebel movement splintered, and Dessalines was assassinated by rivals on 17 October 1806.<\/p>\n After Dessalines’ death Haiti became split into two, with the Kingdom of Haiti<\/a> in the north directed by Henri Christophe, later declaring himself Henri I, and a republic in the south centered on Port-au-Prince, directed by Alexandre P\u00e9tion<\/a>, an homme de couleur. Christophe established a semi-feudal corv\u00e9e system<\/a>, with a rigid education and economic code. P\u00e9tion’s republic was less absolutist, and he initiated a series of land reforms which benefited the peasant class.<\/p>\n President P\u00e9tion also gave military and financial assistance to the revolutionary leader Sim\u00f3n Bol\u00edvar<\/a>, which were critical in enabling him to liberate the Viceroyalty of New Granada<\/a>. Meanwhile the French, who had managed to maintain a precarious control of eastern Hispaniola, were defeated<\/a> by insurgents led by Juan S\u00e1nchez Ram\u00edrez<\/a>, with the area returning to Spanish rule in 1809 following the Battle of Palo Hincado<\/a>.<\/p>\n Beginning in 1821, President Jean-Pierre Boyer, also an homme de couleur and successor to P\u00e9tion, reunified the island following the suicide of Henry Christophe. After Santo Domingo<\/a> declared its independence from Spain on 30 November 1821, Boyer invaded, seeking to unite the entire island<\/a> by force and ending slavery in Santo Domingo.<\/p>\n Struggling to revive the agricultural economy to produce commodity crops, Boyer passed the Code Rural, which denied peasant laborers the right to leave the land, enter the towns, or start farms or shops of their own, causing much resentment as most peasants wished to have their own farms rather than work on plantations.<\/p>\n The American Colonization Society (ACS)<\/a> encouraged free blacks in the United States to emigrate to Haiti. Starting in September 1824, more than 6,000 African Americans migrated to Haiti, with transportation paid by the ACS. Many found the conditions too harsh and returned to the United States.<\/p>\n In July 1825, King Charles X of France<\/a>, during a period of restoration of the French monarchy, sent a fleet to reconquer the island. Under pressure, President Boyer agreed to a treaty by which France formally recognized the independence of the nation in exchange for a payment of 150 million francs<\/a>.<\/p>\n By an order of 17 April 1826, the King of France renounced his rights of sovereignty and formally recognized the independence of Haiti. The enforced payments to France hampered Haiti’s economic growth for years, exacerbated by the fact that many Western nations continued to refuse formal diplomatic recognition to Haiti; Britain recognized Haitian independence in 1833, and the United States not until 1862. Haiti borrowed heavily from Western banks at extremely high interest rates to repay the debt. Although the amount of the reparations was reduced to 90 million in 1838, by 1900 80% of the country’s gross domestic product was being spent on debt repayment and the country did not finish repaying it until 1947.<\/p>\n After losing the support of Haiti’s elite, Boyer was ousted in 1843, with Charles Rivi\u00e8re-H\u00e9rard<\/a> replacing him as president. Nationalist Dominican forces in eastern Hispaniola led by Juan Pablo Duarte<\/a> seized control of Santo Domingo on 27 February 1844. The Haitian forces, unprepared for a significant uprising, capitulated to the rebels, effectively ending Haitian rule of eastern Hispaniola. In March Rivi\u00e8re-H\u00e9rard attempted to reimpose his authority, but the Dominicans put up stiff opposition and inflicted heavy losses. Rivi\u00e8re-H\u00e9rard was removed from office by the mulatto hierarchy and replaced with the aged general Philippe Guerrier<\/a>, who assumed the presidency on 3 May 1844.<\/p>\n Guerrier died in April 1845, and was succeeded by General Jean-Louis Pierrot<\/a>. Pierrot’s most pressing duty as the new president was to check the incursions of the Dominicans, who were harassing the Haitian troops. Dominican gunboats were also making depredations on Haiti’s coasts. President Pierrot decided to open a campaign against the Dominicans, whom he considered merely as insurgents, however the Haitian offensive of 1845 was stopped on the frontier.<\/p>\n On 1 January 1846 Pierrot announced a fresh campaign to re-imposed Haitian suzerainty over eastern Hispaniola, but his officers and men greeted this fresh summons with contempt. Thus, a month later \u2013 February 1846 \u2013 when Pierrot ordered his troops to march against the Dominicans, the Haitian army mutinied, and its soldiers proclaimed his overthrow as president of the republic. With the war against the Dominicans having become very unpopular in Haiti, it was beyond the power of the new president, General Jean-Baptiste Rich\u00e9<\/a>, to stage another invasion.<\/p>\n On 27 February 1847, President Rich\u00e9 died after only a year in power and was replaced by an obscure officer, General Faustin Soulouque<\/a>.<\/p>\n During the first two years of Soulouque’s administration the conspiracies and opposition he faced in retaining power were so manifold that the Dominicans were given a further breathing space in which to consolidate their independence. But, when in 1848 France finally recognized the Dominican Republic as a free and independent state and provisionally signed a treaty of peace, friendship, commerce and navigation, Haiti immediately protested, claiming the treaty was an attack upon their own security. Soulouque decided to invade the new Republic before the French Government could ratify the treaty.<\/p>\n On 21 March 1849, Haitian soldiers attacked the Dominican garrison at Las Matas<\/a>. The demoralized defenders offered almost no resistance before abandoning their weapons. Soulouque pressed on, capturing San Juan<\/a>. This left only the town of Azua<\/a> as the remaining Dominican stronghold between the Haitian army and the capital. On 6 April, Azua fell to the 18,000-strong Haitian army, with a 5,000-man Dominican counterattack failing to oust them. The way to Santo Domingo<\/a> was now clear. But the news of discontent existing at Port-au-Prince, which reached Soulouque, arrested his further progress and caused him to return with the army to his capital.<\/p>\n Emboldened by the sudden retreat of the Haitian army, the Dominicans counter-attacked. Their flotilla went as far as Dame-Marie<\/a>, which they plundered and set on fire. Soulouque, now self-proclaimed as Emperor Faustin I, decided to start a new campaign against them.<\/p>\n In 1855, he again invaded the territory of the Dominican Republic. But owing to insufficient preparation, the army was soon in want of victuals and ammunition. In spite of the bravery of the soldiers, the Emperor had once more to give up the idea of a unified island under Haitian control. After this campaign, Britain and France interfered and obtained an armistice on behalf of the Dominicans, who declared independence as the Dominican Republic.<\/p>\n The sufferings endured by the soldiers during the campaign of 1855, and the losses and sacrifices inflicted on the country without yielding any compensation or any practical results provoked great discontent. In 1858 a revolution began, led by General Fabre Geffrard, Duke of Tabara<\/a>.<\/p>\n In December of that year, Geffrard defeated the Imperial Army and seized control of most of the country. As a result, the Emperor abdicated his throne on 15 January 1859. Refused aid by the French Legation, Faustin was taken into exile aboard a British warship on 22 January 1859, and General Geffrard succeeded him as President.<\/p>\n The period following Soulouque’s overthrow down to the turn of the century was a turbulent one for Haiti, with repeated bouts of political instability. President Geffrard was overthrown in a coup in 1867, as was his successor, Sylvain Salnave<\/a>, in 1869. Under the Presidency of Michel Domingue<\/a> (1874\u201376) relations with the Dominican Republic were dramatically improved by the signing of a treaty, in which both parties acknowledged the independence of the other, bringing an end to Haitian dreams of bringing the entirety of Hispaniola under their control. Some modernization of the economy and infrastructure also occurred in this period, especially under the Presidencies of Lysius Salomon<\/a> (1879\u201388) and Florvil Hyppolite<\/a> (1889\u201396).<\/p>\n Haiti’s relations with outside powers were often strained. In 1889 the United States attempted to force Haiti<\/a> to permit the building of a naval base at M\u00f4le Saint-Nicolas<\/a>, which was firmly resisted by President Hyppolite. In 1892 the German government supported suppression of the reform movement of Ant\u00e9nor Firmin<\/a>, and in 1897, the Germans used gunboat diplomacy to intimidate and then humiliate the Haitian government of President Tir\u00e9sias Simon Sam<\/a> (1896\u20131902) during the L\u00fcders Affair<\/a>.<\/p>\n In the first decades of the 20th century, Haiti experienced great political instability and was heavily in debt to France, Germany and the United States. A series of short lived presidencies came and went: President Pierre Nord Alexis<\/a> was forced from power in 1908, as was his successor Fran\u00e7ois C. Antoine Simon<\/a> in 1911; President Cincinnatus Leconte<\/a> (1911\u201312) was killed in a (possibly deliberate) explosion at the National Palace; Michel Oreste<\/a> (1913\u201314) was ousted in a coup, as was his successor Oreste Zamor<\/a> in 1914.<\/p>\n Germany increased its influence in Haiti in this period, with a small community of German settlers wielding disproportionate influence in Haiti’s economy. The German influence prompted anxieties in the United States, who had also invested heavily in the country, and whose government defended their right to oppose foreign interference in the Americas under the Monroe Doctrine<\/a>. In December 1914, the Americans removed $500,000 from the Haitian National Bank, but rather than seize it to help pay the debt, it was removed for safe-keeping in New York, thus giving the United States control of the bank and preventing other powers from doing so. This gave a stable financial base on which to build the economy, and so enable the debt to be repaid.<\/p>\n In 1915, Haiti’s new President Vilbrun Guillaume Sam<\/a> sought to strengthen his tenuous rule by a mass execution of 167 political prisoners. Outrage at the killings led to riots, and Sam was captured and killed by a lynch mob. Fearing possible foreign intervention, or the emergence of a new government led by the anti-American Haitian politician Rosalvo Bobo<\/a>, President Woodrow Wilson<\/a> sent U.S. Marines into Haiti in July 1915. The USS Washington<\/a>, under Rear Admiral Caperton<\/a>, arrived in Port-au-Prince in an attempt to restore order and protect U.S. interests.<\/p>\n Within days, the Marines had taken control of the capital city and its banks and customs house. The Marines declared martial law and severely censored the press. Within weeks, a new pro-U.S. Haitian president, Philippe Sudr\u00e9 Dartiguenave<\/a>, was installed and a new constitution written that was favorable to the interests of the United States. The constitution (written by future US President Franklin D. Roosevelt<\/a>) included a clause that allowed, for the first time, foreign ownership of land in Haiti, which was bitterly opposed by the Haitian legislature and citizenry.<\/p>\n The occupation greatly improved some of Haiti’s infrastructure and centralized power in Port-au-Prince. Infrastructure improvements were particularly impressive: 1700 km of roads were made usable, 189 bridges were built, many irrigation canals were rehabilitated, hospitals, schools, and public buildings were constructed, and drinking water was brought to the main cities. Port-au-Prince became the first Caribbean city to have a phone service with automatic dialling. Agricultural education was organized, with a central school of agriculture and 69 farms in the country. However many infrastructure projects were built using the corv\u00e9e system that allowed the government\/occupying forces to take people from their homes and farms, at gunpoint if necessary, to build roads, bridges etc. by force, a process that was deeply resented by ordinary Haitians. Sisal<\/a> was also introduced to Haiti, and sugarcane and cotton became significant exports, boosting prosperity. Haitian traditionalists, based in rural areas, were highly resistant to U.S.-backed changes, while the urban elites, typically mixed-race, welcomed the growing economy, but wanted more political control. Together they helped secure an end to the occupation in 1934, under the Presidency of St\u00e9nio Vincent<\/a> (1930\u201341). The debts were still outstanding, though less due to increased prosperity, and the U.S. financial advisor-general receiver handled the budget until 1941.<\/p>\n The U.S. Marines were instilled with a special brand of paternalism towards Haitians “expressed in the metaphor of a father’s relationship with his children.” Armed opposition to the US presence was led by the cacos<\/a> under the command of Charlemagne P\u00e9ralte<\/a>; his capture and execution in 1919 earned him the status of a national martyr.<\/p>\n During Senate hearings in 1921, the commandant of the Marine Corps reported that, in the 20 months of active unrest, 2,250 Haitians had been killed. However, in a report to the Secretary of the Navy, he reported the death toll as being 3,250. Haitian historians have claimed the true number was much higher. One went so far as to say, “the total number of battle victims and casualties of repression and consequences of the war might have reached, by the end of the pacification period, four or five times that \u2013 somewhere in the neighborhood of 15,000 persons.” This is not supported by most historians outside Haiti.<\/p>\n After US forces left in 1934, Dominican dictator Rafael Trujillo<\/a> used anti-Haitian sentiment as a nationalist tool. In an event that became known as the Parsley Massacre<\/a>, he ordered his army to kill Haitians living on the Dominican side of the border. Few bullets were used \u2013 instead, 20,000\u201330,000 Haitians were bludgeoned and bayonetted, then herded into the sea, where sharks finished what Trujillo had begun. Congressman Hamilton Fish<\/a>, ranking member of the House Foreign Affairs Committee, called the Parsley Massacre “the most outrageous atrocity that has ever been perpetrated on the American continent.”<\/p>\n President Vincent became increasingly dictatorial, and resigned under US pressure in 1941, being replaced by \u00c9lie Lescot<\/a> (1941\u201346). In 1941, during the Second World War<\/a>, Lescot declared war on Japan<\/a> (8 December), Germany<\/a> (12 December), Italy<\/a> (12 December), Bulgaria<\/a> (24 December), Hungary<\/a> (24 December) and Romania<\/a> (24 December). Out of these six Axis<\/a> countries, only Romania reciprocated, declaring war on Haiti on the same day (24 December 1941). On 27 September 1945, Haiti became a founding member of the United Nations (the successor to the League of Nations<\/a>, of which Haiti was also a founding member).<\/p>\n In 1946 Lescot was overthrown by the military, with Dumarsais Estim<\/a>\u00e9 later becoming the new president (1946\u201350). He sought to improve the economy and education, and to boost the role of black Haitians, however as he sought to consolidate his rule he too was overthrown in a coup led by Paul Magloire<\/a>, who replaced him as president (1950\u201356).<\/p>\n Firmly anti-Communist, he was supported by the United States; with greater political stability tourists started to visit Haiti. The waterfront area of Port-au-Prince was redeveloped to allow cruise ship passengers to walk from the docks to cultural attractions. Celebrities such as Truman Capote<\/a> and No\u00ebl Coward<\/a> visited Haiti; the era is captured in Graham Greene’s<\/a> 1966 novel The Comedians<\/a>.<\/p>\n In 1956\u201357 Haiti underwent severe political turmoil; Magloire was forced to resign and leave the country in 1956 and he was followed by four short-lived presidencies. In the September 1957 election Dr. Fran\u00e7ois Duvalier<\/a> was elected President of Haiti. Known as ‘Papa Doc’ and initially popular, Duvalier remained President until his death in 1971.<\/p>\n He advanced black interests in the public sector, where over time, people of color had predominated as the educated urban elite. Not trusting the army, despite his frequent purges of officers deemed disloyal, Duvalier created a private militia known as Tontons Macoutes (“Bogeymen”)<\/a>, which maintained order by terrorizing the populace and political opponents. In 1964 Duvalier proclaimed himself ‘President for Life’; an uprising against his rule that year in J\u00e9r\u00e9mie<\/a> was violently suppressed, with the ringleaders publicly executed and hundreds of mixed-raced citizens in the town killed. The bulk of the educated and professional class began leaving the country, and corruption became widespread. Duvalier sought to create a personality cult, identifying himself with Baron Samedi<\/a>, one of the loa<\/a>, or spirits, of Haitian Vodou. Despite the well-publicized abuses under his rule, Duvalier’s firm anti-Communism earned him the support of the Americans, who burnished the country with aid.<\/p>\n In 1971 Duvalier died, and he was succeeded by his son Jean-Claude Duvalier<\/a>, nicknamed ‘Baby Doc’, who ruled until 1986.<\/p>\n He largely continued his father’s policies, though curbed some of the worst excesses in order to court international respectability. Tourism, which had nosedived in Papa Doc’s time, again became a growing industry. However as the economy continued to decline Baby Doc’s grip on power began to weaken. Haiti’s pig population was slaughtered following an outbreak of swine fever in the late 1970s, causing hardship to rural communities who used them as an investment. The opposition became more vocal, bolstered by a visit to the country by Pope John Paul II<\/a> in 1983, who publicly lambasted the president. Demonstrations occurred in Gona\u00efves in 1985 which then spread across the country; under pressure from the United States, Duvalier left the country for France in February 1986.<\/p>\n In total, roughly 40,000 to 60,000 Haitians are estimated to have been killed during the reign of the Duvaliers. Through the use of his intimidation tactics and executions, many intellectual Haitians had fled, leaving the country with a massive brain-drain that it has yet to recover from.<\/p>\n Following Duvalier’s departure, army leader General Henri Namphy<\/a> headed a new National Governing Council<\/a>. Elections scheduled for November 1987 were aborted after dozens of inhabitants were shot in the capital by soldiers and Tontons Macoutes. Fraudulent elections followed in 1988, in which only 4% of the citizenry voted. The newly elected President, Leslie Manigat<\/a>, was then overthrown some months later in the June 1988 Haitian coup d’\u00e9tat<\/a>. Another coup followed in September 1988<\/a>, after the St. Jean Bosco<\/a> massacre in which 13\u201350 people (estimates vary) attending a mass led by prominent government critic and Catholic priest Jean-Bertrand Aristide<\/a> were killed. General Prosper Avril<\/a> subsequently led a military regime until March 1990.<\/p>\n In December 1990 Jean-Bertrand Aristide was elected President in the Haitian general election. However his ambitious reformist agenda worried the elites, and in September of the following year he was overthrown by the military, led by Raoul C\u00e9dras<\/a>, in the 1991 Haitian coup d’\u00e9tat<\/a>. Amidst the continuing turmoil many Haitians attempted to flee the country.<\/p>\n In September 1994, the United States negotiated the departure of Haiti’s military leaders and the peaceful entry of 20,000 US troops under Operation Uphold Democracy<\/a>. This enabled the restoration of the democratically elected Jean-Bertrand Aristide as president, who returned to Haiti in October to complete his term. As part of the deal Aristide had to implement free market reforms in an attempt to improve the Haitian economy, with mixed results, some sources stating that these reforms had a negative impact on native Haitian industry. In November 1994, Hurricane Gordon<\/a> brushed Haiti, dumping heavy rain and creating flash flooding that triggered mudslides. Gordon killed an estimated 1,122 people, although some estimates go as high as 2,200.<\/p>\n Elections were held in 1995 which were won by Ren\u00e9 Pr\u00e9val<\/a>, gaining 88% of the popular vote, albeit on a low turnout. Aristide subsequently formed his own party, Fanmi Lavalas<\/a>, and political deadlock ensued; the November 2000 election returned Aristide to the presidency with 92% of the vote. The election had been boycotted by the opposition, then organized into the Convergence D\u00e9mocratique<\/a>, over a dispute in the May legislative elections. In subsequent years, there was increasing violence between rival political faction and human rights abuses. Aristide spent years negotiating with the Convergence D\u00e9mocratique on new elections, but the Convergence’s inability to develop a sufficient electoral base made elections unattractive.<\/p>\n In 2004 an anti-Aristide revolt<\/a> began in northern Haiti. The rebellion eventually reached the capital, and Aristide was forced into exile. The precise nature of the events are disputed; some, including Aristide and his bodyguard, Franz Gabriel, stated that he was the victim of a “new coup d’\u00e9tat or modern kidnapping” by U.S. forces. Mrs. Aristide stated that the kidnappers wore U.S. Special Forces uniforms, but changed into civilian clothes upon boarding the aircraft that was used to remove Aristide from Haiti. These charges were denied by the US government. As political violence and crime continued to grow, a United Nations Stabilisation Mission (MINUSTAH) was brought in to maintain order.<\/p>\n Howeever MINUSTAH proved controversial, as their at times heavy-handed approach to maintaining law and order and several instances of abuses, including the alleged sexual abuse of civilians, provoked resentment and distrust amongst ordinary Haitians. Boniface Alexandre<\/a> assumed interim authority until 2006, when Ren\u00e9 Pr\u00e9val was re-elected President following elections.<\/p>\n Amidst the continuing political chaos, a series of natural disasters hit Haiti. In 2004 Tropical Storm Jeanne<\/a> skimmed the north coast, leaving 3,006 people dead in flooding and mudslides, mostly in the city of Gona\u00efves<\/a>. In 2008 Haiti was again struck by tropical storms; Tropical Storm Fay<\/a>, Hurricane Gustav<\/a>, Hurricane Hanna<\/a> and Hurricane Ike<\/a> all produced heavy winds and rain, resulting in 331 deaths and about 800,000 in need of humanitarian aid. The state of affairs produced by these storms was intensified by already high food and fuel prices that had caused a food crisis and political unrest in April 2008.<\/p>\n On 12 January 2010, at 4:53pm local time, Haiti was struck by a magnitude-7.0 earthquake.<\/p>\n This was the country’s most severe earthquake in over 200 years. The earthquake was reported to have left between 220,000 and 300,000 people dead and up to 1.6 million homeless. The situation was exacerbated by a subsequent massive cholera outbreak<\/a> that was triggered when cholera-infected waste from a United Nations peacekeeping station contaminated the country’s main river, the Artibonite. In 2017, it was reported that roughly 10,000 Haitians had died and nearly a million had been made ill. After years of denial the United Nations apologized in 2016, but as of 2017, they have refused to acknowledge fault, thus avoiding financial responsibility.<\/p>\n General elections had been planned for January 2010 but were postponed due to the earthquake. Elections were held on 28 November 2010 for the senate, the parliament and the first round of the presidential elections. The run-off between Michel Martelly<\/a> and Mirlande Manigat<\/a> took place on 20 March 2011, and preliminary results, released on 4 April, named Michel Martelly the winner. In 2011 both former dictator Jean-Claude Duvalier and Jean-Bertrand Aristide returned to Haiti; attempts to try Duvalier for crimes committed under his rule were shelved following his death in 2014. In 2013, Haiti called for European nations to pay reparations for slavery and establish an official commission for the settlement of past wrongdoings. Meanwhile, after continuing political wrangling with the opposition and allegations of electoral fraud, Martelly agreed to step down in 2016 without having a successor in place. An interim president, Jocelerme Privert<\/a>, then took office.<\/p>\n After numerous postponements, partly owing to the effects of another devastating hurricane, elections were eventually held in November 2016. The victor, Jovenel Mo\u00efse<\/a> of the Haitian T\u00e8t Kale Party<\/a>, was subsequently sworn in as president in 2017. The 2018\u20132019 Haitian protests<\/a> are demonstrations in cities throughout Haiti that began on 7 July 2018, in response to increased fuel prices. Over time these protests evolved into demands for the resignation of president Mo\u00efse.<\/p>\n Haiti forms the western three-eighths of Hispaniola<\/a>, the second largest island in the Greater Antilles<\/a>. At 27,750 sq km Haiti is the third largest country in the Caribbean behind Cuba and the Dominican Republic, the latter sharing a 360-kilometre (224 mi) border with Haiti. The country has a roughly horseshoe shape and because of this it has a disproportionately long coastline, second in length (1,771 km or 1,100 mi) behind Cuba in the Greater Antilles.<\/p>\n Haiti is the most mountainous nation in the Caribbean, its terrain consists of mountains interspersed with small coastal plains and river valleys. The climate is tropical, with some variation depending on altitude. The highest point is Pic la Selle<\/a>, at 2,680 metres (8,793 ft).<\/p>\n The northern region consists of the Massif du Nord<\/a> (Northern Massif) and the Plaine du Nord<\/a> (Northern Plain). The Massif du Nord is an extension of the Cordillera Central in the Dominican Republic. It begins at Haiti’s eastern border, north of the Guayamouc River<\/a>, and extends to the northwest through the northern peninsula. The lowlands of the Plaine du Nord lie along the northern border with the Dominican Republic, between the Massif du Nord and the North Atlantic Ocean.<\/p>\n The central region consists of two plains and two sets of mountain ranges. The Plateau Central (Central Plateau) extends along both sides of the Guayamouc River, south of the Massif du Nord. It runs from the southeast to the northwest. To the southwest of the Plateau Central are the Montagnes Noires<\/a>, whose most northwestern part merges with the Massif du Nord. Haiti’s most important valley in terms of crops is the Plaine de l’Artibonite, which lies between the Montagnes Noires and the Cha\u00eene des Matheux. This region supports the country’s (also Hispaniola’s) longest river, the Riviere l’Artibonite<\/a>, which begins in the western region of the Dominican Republic and continues for most of its length through central Haiti, where it then empties into the Golfe de la Gon\u00e2ve.<\/a> Also in this valley lies Haiti’s second largest lake, Lac de P\u00e9ligre<\/a>, formed as a result of the construction of the P\u00e9ligre Dam<\/a> in the mid-1950s.<\/p>\n The southern region consists of the Plaine du Cul-de-Sac<\/a> (the southeast) and the mountainous southern peninsula (also known as the Tiburon Peninsula<\/a>). The Plaine du Cul-de-Sac is a natural depression that harbors the country’s saline lakes, such as Trou Ca\u00efman<\/a> and Haiti’s largest lake, \u00c9tang Saumatre<\/a>. The Cha\u00eene de la Selle<\/a> mountain range \u2013 an extension of the southern mountain chain of the Dominican Republic (the Sierra de Baoruco) \u2013 extends from the Massif de la Selle in the east to the Massif de la Hotte<\/a> in the west.<\/p>\n Haiti also includes several offshore islands. The island of Tortuga (\u00cele de la Tortue<\/a>) is located off the coast of northern Haiti. The arrondissement of La Gon\u00e2ve<\/a> is located on the island of the same name, in the Golfe de la Gon\u00e2ve; Haiti’s largest island, Gon\u00e2ve is moderately populated by rural villagers. \u00cele \u00e0 Vache<\/a> (Cow Island) is located off the southwest coast; also part of Haiti are the Cayemites<\/a>, located in the Gulf of Gon\u00e2ve north of Pestel<\/a>. La Navasse<\/a> (Navassa Island), located 40 nautical miles (46 mi; 74 km) west of J\u00e9r\u00e9mie<\/a> on the south west peninsula of Haiti, is subject to an ongoing territorial dispute with the United States, who currently administer the island via the United States Fish and Wildlife Service<\/a>.<\/p>\n Haiti has a predominantly free market economy, with a GDP of $19.97 billion and per capita GDP of $1,800 (2017 estimates). The country uses the Haitian gourde as its currency. Despite its tourism industry, Haiti is one of the poorest countries in the Americas, with poverty, corruption, political instability, poor infrastructure, lack of health care and lack of education cited as the main causes. Unemployment is high and many Haitians seek to emigrate. Trade declined dramatically after the 2010 earthquake and subsequent outbreak of cholera. Haiti ranked 145 of 182 countries in the 2010 United Nations Human Development Index, with 57.3% of the population being deprived in at least three of the HDI’s poverty measures.<\/p>\n Following the disputed 2000 election and accusations about President Aristide’s rule, US aid to the Haitian government was cut off between 2001 and 2004. After Aristide’s departure in 2004, aid was restored and the Brazilian army led a United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti peacekeeping operation. After almost four years of recession, the economy grew by 1.5% in 2005. In September 2009, Haiti met the conditions set out by the IMF and World Bank’s Heavily Indebted Poor Countries program to qualify for cancellation of its external debt.<\/p>\n More than 90 percent of the government’s budget comes from an agreement with Petrocaribe, a Venezuela-led oil alliance.<\/p>\n Haiti received more than US$4 billion in aid from 1990 to 2003, including US$1.5 billion from the United States. The largest donor is the US, followed by Canada and the European Union. In January 2010, following the earthquake, US President Barack Obama promised US$1.15 billion in assistance. European Union nations pledged more than \u20ac400 million (US$616 million). Neighboring Dominican Republic has also provided extensive humanitarian aid to Haiti, including the funding and construction of a public university, human capital, free healthcare services in the border region, and logistical support after the 2010 earthquake.<\/p>\n Haiti is the world’s leading producer of ![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2020\/09\/Departmental-Map-of-Haiti-300x222.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>History:<\/h2>\n
Pre-Columbian History:<\/h3>\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2020\/09\/The-five-Caciquedoms-of-Hispaniola-at-the-Time-of-the-Arrival-of-Christopher-Columbus-300x150.png\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>Colonial Era:<\/h3>\n
Spanish Rule (1492\u20131625):<\/h4>\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2020\/09\/Columbus-Landing-on-Hispaniola-300x255.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2020\/09\/1510-Ta\u00edno-Pictograph-Telling-a-Story-of-Missionaries-Arriving-in-Hispaniola-300x228.png\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>French Rule (1625\u20131804):<\/h4>\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2020\/09\/Colonial-Home-in-Haiti-300x141.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2020\/09\/Free-People-of-Color-in-Haiti.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>Haitian Revolution (1791\u20131804):<\/h4>\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2020\/09\/Saint-Domingue-Slave-Revolt-in-1791-300x192.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2020\/09\/Andr\u00e9-Rigaud-209x300.gif\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2020\/09\/Henri-Christophe-211x300.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>Independent Haiti:<\/h3>\n
First Empire (1804\u20131806):<\/h4>\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2020\/09\/Black-Slaves-Murdering-French-Settlers-300x212.gif\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2020\/09\/President-Thomas-Jefferson-244x300.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>State of Haiti, Kingdom of Haiti and the Republic (1806\u20131820):<\/h4>\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2020\/09\/Petion-President-dHaiti-1807-1818-231x300.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>Haitian Invasion of Santo Domingo (1821\u20131844):<\/h4>\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2020\/09\/Jean-Pierre-Boyer-Ruler-of-Haiti-1818\u20131843-246x300.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2020\/09\/Charles-X-of-France-209x300.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>Loss of the Spanish Portion of the Island:<\/h4>\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2020\/09\/Philippe-Guerrier.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2020\/09\/Jean-Baptiste-Rich\u00e9.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>Second Empire (1849\u20131859):<\/h4>\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2020\/09\/Faustin-Soulouque-272x300.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2020\/09\/Faustin-I-191x300.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2020\/09\/Fabre-Geffrard-261x300.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>Late 19th Century\u2013Early 20th Century:<\/h4>\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2020\/09\/Florvil-Hyppolite-President-of-Haiti-1889-1896-233x300.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2020\/09\/German-Captain-Thiele-of-the-Charlotte-Handing-Over-the-German-Ultimatum-on-6-December-1897-During-the-L\u00fcders-Affair-300x199.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>United States Occupation (1915\u20131934):<\/h4>\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2020\/09\/William-B.-Caperton-1914-219x300.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2020\/09\/U.S.-Marines-and-Guide-in-Search-of-Haitian-Cacos-Fighters-300x260.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2020\/09\/The-Body-of-Caco-Leader-Charlemagne-P\u00e9ralte-193x300.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>Post-Occupation Era (1934\u20131957):<\/h4>\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2020\/09\/Victims-of-the-Parsley-Massacre-300x215.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2020\/09\/Paul-Magloiret-187x300.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>Duvalier Dynasty (1957\u20131986):<\/h4>\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2020\/09\/Papa-Doc-Duvalier-199x300.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2020\/09\/Jean-Claude-Duvalier-225x300.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2020\/09\/John-Paul-II-252x300.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>Post-Duvalier Era (1986\u20132004):<\/h4>\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2020\/09\/Jean-Bertrand-Aristide.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2020\/09\/Soldiers-of-C-Company-2nd-Battalion-22nd-Infantry-10th-Mountain-Division-securing-Port-au-Prince-Airport-on-the-first-day-of-Operation-Uphold-Democracy-300x198.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2020\/09\/UN-Forces-in-Haiti-300x205.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>Post-Aristide Era (2004\u2013present):<\/h4>\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2020\/09\/Haitian-National-Palace-Destroyed-Following-the-2010-Earthquake-300x200.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2020\/09\/Jovenel-Moise-204x300.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>Geography:<\/h2>\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2020\/09\/Topographic-Map-of-Haiti-300x224.png\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2020\/09\/Lake-P\u00e9ligre-300x203.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>Economy:<\/h2>\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2020\/09\/Haitian-Export-Map-300x234.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>