![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2021\/01\/Madagascar-in-Africa-300x279.png\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>The archaeological evidence of the earliest human foraging on Madagascar may date up to 10,000 years ago. Human settlement of Madagascar occurred between 350 BC and 550 AD by Indianized Austronesian<\/a> peoples, arriving on outrigger canoes<\/a> from present-day Indonesia<\/a>, where the contemporary social and religious situation were that of Hinduism<\/a> and Buddhism<\/a>, along with native Indonesian culture. These were joined around the 9th century AD by Bantu<\/a> migrants crossing the Mozambique Channel from East Africa. Other groups continued to settle on Madagascar over time, each one making lasting contributions to Malagasy cultural life. The Malagasy ethnic group is often divided into 18 or more subgroups, of which the largest are the Merina<\/a> of the central highlands.<\/p>\n Until the late 18th century, the island of Madagascar was ruled by a fragmented assortment of shifting sociopolitical alliances. Beginning in the early 19th century, most of the island was united and ruled as the Kingdom of Madagascar<\/a> by a series of Merina nobles. The monarchy ended in 1897 when the island was absorbed into the French colonial empire, from which the island gained independence in 1960. The autonomous state of Madagascar has since undergone four major constitutional periods, termed republics. Since 1992, the nation has officially been governed as a constitutional democracy from its capital at Antananarivo<\/a>. However, in a popular uprising in 2009<\/a>, president Marc Ravalomanana<\/a> was made to resign and presidential power was transferred in March 2009 to Andry Rajoelina<\/a>. Constitutional governance was restored in January 2014, when Hery Rajaonarimampianina<\/a> was named president following a 2013 election deemed fair and transparent by the international community. Madagascar is a member of the United Nations<\/a>, the African Union (AU)<\/a>, the Southern African Development Community (SADC)<\/a>, and the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie.<\/a><\/p>\n <\/p>\n Madagascar belongs to the group of least developed countries, according to the United Nations. Malagasy and French are both official languages of the state. The majority of the population adheres to traditional beliefs, Christianity, or an amalgamation of both. Ecotourism and agriculture, paired with greater investments in education, health, and private enterprise, are key elements of Madagascar’s development strategy. Under Ravalomanana, these investments produced substantial economic growth, but the benefits were not evenly spread throughout the population, producing tensions over the increasing cost of living and declining living standards among the poor and some segments of the middle class. As of 2017, the economy has been weakened by the 2009\u20132013 political crisis, and quality of life remains low for the majority of the Malagasy population.<\/p>\n Traditionally, archaeologists have estimated that the earliest settlers arrived in successive waves in outrigger canoes from the Sunda islands<\/a> (Malay Archipelago<\/a>) throughout the period between 350 BC and 550 AD, while others are cautious about dates earlier than 250 AD. In either case, these dates make Madagascar the last major landmass on Earth to be settled by humans, except for Iceland<\/a> and New Zealand<\/a>.<\/p>\n Upon arrival, early settlers practiced slash-and-burn agriculture to clear the coastal rainforests for cultivation. The first settlers encountered Madagascar’s abundance of megafauna, including giant lemurs<\/a>, elephant birds<\/a>, giant fossa<\/a> and the Malagasy hippopotamus<\/a>, which have since become extinct because of hunting and habitat destruction. By 600 AD, groups of these early settlers had begun clearing the forests of the central highlands. Arab traders first reached the island between the 7th and 9th centuries. A wave of Bantu-speaking migrants from southeastern Africa arrived around 1000 AD. South Indian Tamil merchants arrived around 11th century. They introduced the zebu<\/a>, a type of long-horned humped cattle, which they kept in large herds. Irrigated paddy fields were developed in the central highland Betsileo Kingdom<\/a> and were extended with terraced paddies throughout the neighboring Kingdom of Imerina<\/a> a century later. The rising intensity of land cultivation and the ever-increasing demand for zebu pasturage had largely transformed the central highlands from a forest ecosystem to grassland by the 17th century. The oral histories of the Merina people, who may have arrived in the central highlands between 600 and 1,000 years ago, describe encountering an established population they called the Vazimba<\/a>. Probably the descendants of an earlier and less technologically advanced Austronesian settlement wave, the Vazimba were assimilated or expelled from the highlands by the Merina kings Andriamanelo<\/a>, Ralambo<\/a> and Andrianjaka<\/a> in the 16th and early 17th centuries. Today, the spirits of the Vazimba are revered as tompontany (ancestral masters of the land) by many traditional Malagasy communities.<\/p>\n The written history of Madagascar began with the Arabs, who established trading posts along the northwest coast by at least the 10th century and introduced Islam, the Arabic script (used to transcribe the Malagasy language in a form of writing known as sorabe), Arab astrology, and other cultural elements.<\/p>\n European contact began in 1500, when the Portuguese sea captain Diogo Dias<\/a> sighted the island, while participating in the 2nd Armada<\/a> of the Portuguese India Armadas.<\/a><\/p>\n Matatana was the first Portuguese settlement on the south coast, 10 km west of Fort Dauphin. In 1508, settlers there built a tower, a small village, and a stone column. This settlement was established in 1613 at the behest of the viceroy of Portuguese India<\/a>, Jeronimo de Azeved<\/a>o.<\/p>\n Contacts continued from the 1550s. Several colonization and conversion missions were ordered by King Jo\u00e3o III<\/a> and by the Viceroy of India, including one in 1553 by Baltazar Lobo de Sousa. In that mission, according to detailed descriptions by chroniclers Diogo do Couto and Jo\u00e3o de Barros, emissaries reached the inland via rivers and bays, exchanging goods and even converting one of the local kings.<\/p>\n The French established trading posts along the east coast in the late 17th century.<\/p>\n From about 1774 to 1824, Madagascar gained prominence among pirates and European traders, particularly those involved in the trans-Atlantic slave trade. The small island of Nosy Boroha<\/a> off the northeastern coast of Madagascar has been proposed by some historians as the site of the legendary pirate utopia of Libertalia<\/a>. Many European sailors were shipwrecked on the coasts of the island, among them Robert Drury<\/a>, whose journal is one of the few written depictions of life in southern Madagascar during the 18th century.<\/p>\n The wealth generated by maritime trade spurred the rise of organized kingdoms on the island, some of which had grown quite powerful by the 17th century. Among these were the Betsimisaraka<\/a> alliance of the eastern coast and the Sakalava<\/a> chiefdoms of Menabe<\/a> and Boina<\/a> on the west coast. The Kingdom of Imerina, located in the central highlands with its capital at the royal palace<\/a> of Antananarivo, emerged at around the same time under the leadership of King Andriamanelo.<\/p>\n Upon its emergence in the early 17th century, the highland kingdom of Imerina was initially a minor power relative to the larger coastal kingdoms and grew even weaker in the early 18th century when King Andriamasinavalona<\/a> divided it among his four sons. Following almost a century of warring and famine, Imerina was reunited in 1793 by King Andrianampoinimerina<\/a> (1787\u20131810).<\/p>\n From his initial capital Ambohimanga<\/a>, and later from the Rova of Antananarivo, this Merina king rapidly expanded his rule over neighboring principalities. His ambition to bring the entire island under his control was largely achieved by his son and successor, King Radama I<\/a> (1810\u201328), who was recognized by the British government as King of Madagascar. Radama concluded a treaty in 1817 with the British governor of Mauritius to abolish the lucrative slave trade in return for British military and financial assistance. Artisan missionary envoys from the London Missionary Society<\/a> began arriving in 1818 and included such key figures as James Cameron<\/a>, David Jones<\/a> and David Griffiths<\/a>, who established schools, transcribed the Malagasy language using the Roman alphabet, translated the Bible, and introduced a variety of new technologies to the island.<\/p>\n Radama’s successor, Queen Ranavalona I<\/a> (1828\u201361), responded to increasing political and cultural encroachment on the part of Britain and France by issuing a royal edict prohibiting the practice of Christianity in Madagascar and pressuring most foreigners to leave the territory. William Ellis<\/a> (missionary) described his visits made during her reign in his book Three Visits to Madagascar during the years 1853, 1854 and 1856. The Queen made heavy use of the traditional practice of fanompoana (forced labor as tax payment) to complete public works projects and develop a standing army of between 20,000 and 30,000 Merina soldiers, whom she deployed to pacify outlying regions of the island and further expand the Kingdom of Merina to encompass most of Madagascar. The combination of regular warfare, disease, difficult forced labor and harsh measures of justice resulted in a high mortality rate among soldiers and civilians alike during her 33-year reign, the population of Madagascar is estimated to have declined from around 5 million to 2.5 million between 1833 and 1839.<\/p>\n Succeeding his mother, Radama II<\/a> (1861\u201363) attempted to relax the queen’s stringent policies, but was overthrown two years later by Prime Minister Rainivoninahitriniony<\/a> (1852\u20131865) and an alliance of Andriana (noble) and Hova (commoner) courtiers, who sought to end the absolute power of the monarch.<\/p>\n Following the coup, the courtiers offered Radama’s queen, Rasoherina<\/a> (1863\u201368), the opportunity to rule, if she would accept a power sharing arrangement with the Prime Minister: a new social contract that would be sealed by a political marriage between them. Queen Rasoherina accepted, first marrying Rainivoninahitriniony<\/a>, then later deposing him and marrying his brother, Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony (1864\u201395), who would go on to marry Queen Ranavalona II<\/a> (1868\u201383) and Queen Ranavalona III<\/a> (1883\u201397) in succession.<\/p>\n Over the course of Rainilaiarivony’s 31-year tenure as prime minister, numerous policies were adopted to modernize and consolidate the power of the central government. Schools were constructed throughout the island and attendance was made mandatory. Army organization was improved and British consultants were employed to train and professionalize soldiers. Polygamy was outlawed and Christianity, declared the official religion of the court in 1869, was adopted alongside traditional beliefs among a growing portion of the populace. Legal codes were reformed on the basis of British common law and three European-style courts were established in the capital city. In his joint role as Commander-in-Chief, Rainilaiarivony also successfully ensured the defense of Madagascar against several French colonial incursions.<\/p>\n France invaded Madagascar in 1883 in what became known as the first Franco-Hova War<\/a>. At the end of the war, Madagascar ceded the northern port town of Antsiranana<\/a> (Diego Suarez) to France and paid 560,000 francs to Lambert’s heirs. In 1890, the British accepted the full formal imposition of a French protectorate on the island, but French authority was not acknowledged by the government of Madagascar. To force capitulation, the French bombarded and occupied the harbor of Toamasina<\/a> on the east coast, and Mahajanga<\/a> on the west coast, in December 1894 and January 1895 respectively.<\/p>\n <\/p>\n France annexed Madagascar in 1896 and declared the island a colony the following year, dissolving the Merina monarchy and sending the royal family into exile on R\u00e9union Island and to Algeria. A two-year resistance movement organized in response to the French capture of the royal palace was effectively put down at the end of 1897.<\/p>\n The Merina royal tradition of taxes paid in the form of labor was continued under the French and used to construct a railway and roads linking key coastal cities to Antananarivo. Malagasy troops fought for France in World War I<\/a>. In the 1930s, Nazi political thinkers developed the Madagascar Plan<\/a> that had identified the island as a potential site for the deportation of Europe’s Jews. During the Second World War<\/a>, the island was the site of the Battle of Madagascar<\/a> between the Vichy government and the British.<\/p>\n The occupation of France during the Second World War tarnished the prestige of the colonial administration in Madagascar and galvanized the growing independence movement, leading to the Malagasy Uprising of 1947<\/a>. This movement led the French to establish reformed institutions in 1956 under the Loi Cadre (Overseas Reform Act), and Madagascar moved peacefully towards independence. The Malagasy Republic was proclaimed on 14 October 1958, as an autonomous state within the French Community. A period of provisional government ended with the adoption of a constitution in 1959 and full independence on 26 June 1960.<\/p>\n Since regaining independence, Madagascar has transitioned through four republics with corresponding revisions to its constitution. The First Republic (1960\u201372), under the leadership of French-appointed President Philibert Tsiranana<\/a>, was characterized by a continuation of strong economic and political ties to France. Many high-level technical positions were filled by French expatriates, and French teachers, textbooks and curricula continued to be used in schools around the country. Popular resentment over Tsiranana’s tolerance for this “neo-colonial” arrangement inspired a series of farmer and student protests that overturned his administration in 1972.<\/p>\n Gabriel Ramanantsoa<\/a>, a major general in the army, was appointed interim president and prime minister that same year, but low public approval forced him to step down in 1975. Colonel Richard Ratsimandrava<\/a>, appointed to succeed him, was assassinated six days into his tenure. General Gilles Andriamahazo<\/a> ruled after Ratsimandrava for four months before being replaced by another military appointee: Vice Admiral Didier Ratsiraka<\/a>, who ushered in the socialist-Marxist Second Republic that ran under his tenure from 1975 to 1993.<\/p>\n This period saw a political alignment with the Eastern Bloc countries and a shift toward economic insularity. These policies, coupled with economic pressures stemming from the 1973 oil crisis, resulted in the rapid collapse of Madagascar’s economy and a sharp decline in living standards, and the country had become completely bankrupt by 1979. The Ratsiraka administration accepted the conditions of transparency, anti-corruption measures and free market policies imposed by the International Monetary Fund, World Bank and various bilateral donors in exchange for their bailout of the nation’s broken economy.<\/p>\n Ratsiraka’s dwindling popularity in the late 1980s reached a critical point in 1991 when presidential guards opened fire on unarmed protesters during a rally. Within two months, a transitional government had been established under the leadership of Albert Zafy<\/a> (1993\u201396), who went on to win the 1992 presidential elections and inaugurate the Third Republic (1992\u20132010).<\/p>\n The new Madagascar constitution established a multi-party democracy and a separation of powers that placed significant control in the hands of the National Assembly. The new constitution also emphasized human rights, social and political freedoms, and free trade. Zafy’s term, however, was marred by economic decline, allegations of corruption, and his introduction of legislation to give himself greater powers. He was consequently impeached in 1996, and an interim president, Norbert Ratsirahonana<\/a>, was appointed for the three months prior to the next presidential election. Ratsiraka was then voted back into power on a platform of decentralization and economic reforms for a second term which lasted from 1996 to 2001.<\/p>\n The contested 2001 presidential elections in which then-mayor of Antananarivo, Marc Ravalomanana<\/a>, eventually emerged victorious, caused a seven-month standoff in 2002 between supporters of Ravalomanana and Ratsiraka. The negative economic impact of the political crisis was gradually overcome by Ravalomanana’s progressive economic and political policies, which encouraged investments in education and ecotourism, facilitated foreign direct investment, and cultivated trading partnerships both regionally and internationally. National GDP grew at an average rate of 7 percent per year under his administration. In the later half of his second term, Ravalomanana was criticized by domestic and international observers who accused him of increasing authoritarianism and corruption.<\/p>\n Opposition leader and then-mayor of Antananarivo, Andry Rajoelina, led a movement in early 2009<\/a> in which Ravalomanana was pushed from power in an unconstitutional process widely condemned as a coup d’\u00e9tat. In March 2009, Rajoelina was declared by the Supreme Court as the President of the High Transitional Authority, an interim governing body responsible for moving the country toward presidential elections.<\/p>\n In 2010, a new constitution was adopted by referendum, establishing a Fourth Republic, which sustained the democratic, multi-party structure established in the previous constitution. Hery Rajaonarimampianina was declared the winner of the 2013 presidential election, which the international community deemed fair and transparent.<\/p>\n At 592,800 square kilometers (228,900 sq mi), Madagascar is the world’s 47th largest country, the 2nd largest island country and the fourth-largest island. Neighboring islands include the French territory of R\u00e9union<\/a> and the country of Mauritius<\/a> to the east, as well as the state of Comoros<\/a> and the French territory of Mayotte<\/a> to the north west. The nearest mainland state is Mozambique<\/a>, located to the west.<\/p>\n Along the length of the eastern coast runs a narrow and steep escarpment containing much of the island’s remaining tropical lowland forest.<\/p>\n To the west of this ridge lies a plateau in the center of the island ranging in altitude from 750 to 1,500 m (2,460 to 4,920 ft) above sea level. These central highlands, traditionally the homeland of the Merina people and the location of their historic capital at Antananarivo, are the most densely populated part of the island and are characterized by terraced, rice-growing valleys lying between grassy hills and patches of the sub-humid forests<\/a> that formerly covered the highland region.<\/p>\n To the west of the highlands, the increasingly arid terrain gradually slopes down to the Mozambique Channel<\/a> and mangrove swamps<\/a> along the coast.<\/p>\n Madagascar’s highest peaks rise from three prominent highland massifs: Maromokotro<\/a> 2,876 m (9,436 ft) in the Tsaratanana Massif is the island’s highest point, followed by Boby Peak 2,658 m (8,720 ft) in the Andringitra Massif<\/a>, and Tsiafajavona 2,643 m (8,671 ft) in the Ankaratra Massif<\/a>. To the east, the Canal des Pangalanes<\/a> is a chain of man-made and natural lakes connected by canals built by the French just inland from the east coast and running parallel to it for some 600 km (370 mi).<\/p>\n The western and southern sides, which lie in the rain shadow<\/a> of the central highlands, are home to dry deciduous forests<\/a>, spiny forests<\/a>, and deserts and xeric shrublands.<\/p>\n Due to their lower population densities, Madagascar’s dry deciduous forests have been better preserved than the eastern rain forests or the original woodlands of the central plateau. The western coast features many protected harbors, but silting is a major problem caused by sediment from the high levels of inland erosion carried by rivers crossing the broad western plains.<\/p>\n The agriculture sector constituted 29 percent of Malagasy GDP in 2011, while manufacturing formed 15 percent of GDP. Madagascar’s other sources of growth are tourism, agriculture and the extractive industries. Tourism focuses on the niche eco-tourism market, capitalizing on Madagascar’s unique biodiversity, unspoiled natural habitats, national parks and lemur species. An estimated 365,000 tourists visited Madagascar in 2008, but the sector declined during the political crisis with 180,000 tourists visiting in 2010. However, the sector has been growing steadily for a few years; In 2016, 293,000 tourists landed in the African island with an increase of 20% compared to 2015; For 2017 the country has the goal of reaching 366,000 visitors, while for 2018 government estimates are expected to reach 500,000 annual tourists.<\/p>\n The island is still a very poor country in 2018; structural brakes remain in the development of the economy: corruption and the shackles of the public administration, lack of legal certainty, and backwardness of land legislation. The economy, however, has been growing since 2011, with GDP growth exceeding 4% per year.<\/p>\n Madagascar’s natural resources include a variety of agricultural and mineral products. Agriculture (including the growing of raffia<\/a>), mining, fishing and forestry are mainstays of the economy. In 2017 the top exports of Madagascar were vanilla<\/a> (US$894M), nickel metal (US$414M), cloves (US$288M), knitted sweaters (US$184M) and cobalt (US$143M).<\/p>\n Madagascar is the world’s principal supplier of vanilla, cloves and ylang-ylang<\/a>. Madagascar supplies 80% of the world’s natural vanilla. Other key agricultural resources include coffee, lychees<\/a> and shrimp. Key mineral resources include various types of precious and semi-precious stones, and Madagascar currently provides half of the world’s supply of sapphires, which were discovered near Ilakaka<\/a> in the late 1990s.<\/p>\n Madagascar has one of the world’s largest reserves of ilmenite (titanium ore), as well as important reserves of chromite, coal, iron, cobalt, copper and nickel. Several major projects are underway in the mining, oil and gas sectors that are anticipated to give a significant boost to the Malagasy economy. These include such projects as ilmenite and zircon mining from heavy mineral sands near T\u00f4lanaro<\/a> by Rio Tinto<\/a>, extraction of nickel near Moramanga<\/a> and its processing near Toamasina by Sherritt International<\/a>, and the development of the giant onshore heavy oil deposits at Tsimiroro<\/a> and Bemolanga<\/a> by Madagascar Oil<\/a>.<\/p>\n Exports formed 28 percent of GDP in 2009. Most of the country’s export revenue is derived from the textiles industry, fish and shellfish, vanilla, cloves and other foodstuffs. France is Madagascar’s main trading partner, although the United States, Japan and Germany also have strong economic ties to the country. The Madagascar-U.S. Business Council was formed in May 2003, as a collaboration between USAID<\/a> and Malagasy artisan producers to support the export of local handicrafts to foreign markets.<\/p>\n Imports of such items as foodstuffs, fuel, capital goods, vehicles, consumer goods and electronics consume an estimated 52 percent of GDP. The main sources of Madagascar’s imports include China<\/a>, France, Iran, Mauritius and Hong Kong.<\/p>\n In 2010, Madagascar had approximately 7,617 km (4,730 mi) of paved roads, 854 km (530 mi) of railways and 432 km (270 mi) of navigable waterways. The majority of roads in Madagascar are unpaved, with many becoming impassable in the rainy season. Largely paved national routes connect the six largest regional towns to Antananarivo, with minor paved and unpaved routes providing access to other population centers in each district.<\/p>\n There are several rail lines. Antananarivo is connected to Toamasina, Ambatondrazaka and Antsirabe by rail, and another rail line connects Fianarantsoa to Manakara. The most important seaport in Madagascar is located on the east coast at Toamasina. Ports at Mahajanga and Antsiranana are significantly less used because of their remoteness. The island’s newest port at Ehoala, constructed in 2008 and privately managed by Rio Tinto, will come under state control upon completion of the company’s mining project near T\u00f4lanaro around 2038.<\/p>\n The main international airport in Madagascar is Ivato International Airport<\/a> in Antananarivo.<\/p>\n Air Madagascar<\/a> services the island’s many small regional airports, which offer the only practical means of access to many of the more remote regions during rainy season road washouts. There are 29 airports with paved runways, and 104 airports with unpaved runways.<\/p>\n The flag of Madagascar was adopted on 14 October 1958, two years before the independence of that nation, as Madagascar prepared for a referendum on its status in the French Community.<\/p>\n The colors of the flag represent Madagascar’s history and traditional peasant classes. Red and white were the colors of the Merina kingdom<\/a>, which succumbed to France in 1896. They were used in the flag of the last Merina monarch, Queen Ranavalona III<\/a>. They may indicate the ethnic origins of the Malagasy people<\/a> in Southeast Asia<\/a>, and are shared by the flag of Indonesia<\/a>. Green was the color of the Hova<\/a>, the largest class of peasant commoners, who played a significant role in anti-French agitation and the independence movement.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":" The colors of the flag represent Madagascar’s history and traditional peasant classes. Red and white were the colors of the Merina kingdom, which succumbed to France in 1896. They were used in the flag of the last Merina monarch, Queen Ranavalona III. They may indicate the ethnic origins of the Malagasy people in Southeast Asia, and are shared by the flag of Indonesia. Green was the color of the Hova, the largest class of peasant commoners, who played a significant role in anti-French agitation and the independence movement.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":7310,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"site-sidebar-layout":"default","site-content-layout":"default","ast-site-content-layout":"","site-content-style":"default","site-sidebar-style":"default","ast-global-header-display":"","ast-banner-title-visibility":"","ast-main-header-display":"","ast-hfb-above-header-display":"","ast-hfb-below-header-display":"","ast-hfb-mobile-header-display":"","site-post-title":"","ast-breadcrumbs-content":"","ast-featured-img":"","footer-sml-layout":"","theme-transparent-header-meta":"default","adv-header-id-meta":"","stick-header-meta":"default","header-above-stick-meta":"","header-main-stick-meta":"","header-below-stick-meta":"","astra-migrate-meta-layouts":"default","ast-page-background-enabled":"default","ast-page-background-meta":{"desktop":{"background-color":"","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-gradient":""},"tablet":{"background-color":"","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-gradient":""},"mobile":{"background-color":"","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-gradient":""}},"ast-content-background-meta":{"desktop":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-5)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-gradient":""},"tablet":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-5)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-gradient":""},"mobile":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-5)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-gradient":""}},"footnotes":""},"categories":[4],"tags":[19,59,5,6,7,31,29,18,60],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/6979"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=6979"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/6979\/revisions"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/7310"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=6979"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=6979"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=6979"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2021\/01\/Political-Map-of-Madagascar-208x300.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>History:<\/h2>\n
Early Period:<\/h3>\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2021\/01\/Elephant-Bird-216x300.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>Arab and Portuguese Contacts:<\/h3>\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2021\/01\/Detail-of-Diogo-Diass-Ship-297x300.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2021\/01\/Robert-Drurys-Journal-1897-187x300.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>Kingdom of Madagascar:<\/h3>\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2021\/01\/King-Andrianampoinimerina-1787\u20131810-241x300.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2021\/01\/Radama-I-211x300.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2021\/01\/Queen-Ranavalona-I-of-Madagascar-210x300.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2021\/01\/Ranavalona-III-237x300.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>French Colonization:<\/h3>\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2021\/01\/A-French-Poster-About-the-Franco-Hova-War-205x300.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2021\/01\/Bond-of-the-French-Colony-Madagascar-issued-7.-May-1897-300x210.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>Independent State:<\/h3>\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2021\/01\/Philibert-Tsiranana.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2021\/01\/President-Albert-Zafy-210x300.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2021\/01\/Marc-Ravalomanana-190x300.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2021\/01\/Andry-Rajoelina-212x300.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>Geography:<\/h2>\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2020\/11\/Topographic-Map-of-Madagascar-182x300.png\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2020\/11\/Eastern-Coast-Rainforest-Madagascar-300x185.png\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2020\/11\/Rice-Fields-Central-Highlands-Madagascar-300x192.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2020\/11\/Western-Madagascar-300x225.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>Economy:<\/h2>\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2020\/11\/Nosy-Iranja-is-one-of-the-international-tourism-destinations-in-Madagascar-300x208.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2020\/11\/Treemap-of-Madagascar-Exports-300x235.png\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2020\/11\/Toy-animals-made-from-raffia-a-native-palm-300x225.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>Transportation:<\/h2>\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2020\/11\/Road-Map-of-Madagascar-187x300.gif\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2020\/11\/Railway-Map-of-Madagascar-187x300.png\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2020\/11\/Ivato-International-Airport-300x200.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>Flag of Madagascar:<\/h2>\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2020\/11\/Flag-of-Madagascar-300x200.png\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>