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<\/a>With an area of 505,990 km2 (195,360 sq mi), Spain is the largest country in Southern Europe, the second-largest country in Western Europe and the European Union, and the fourth-largest country by area on the European continent. With a population exceeding 47.3 million, Spain is the sixth-most populous country in Europe, and the fourth-most populous country in the European Union. Spain’s capital and largest city is Madrid<\/a>; other major urban areas include Barcelona<\/a>, Valencia<\/a>, Seville<\/a>, Zaragoza<\/a>, M\u00e1laga<\/a>, Murcia<\/a>, Palma<\/a>, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria<\/a> and Bilbao<\/a>.<\/p>\n Anatomically modern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 42,000 years ago. Various cultures developed in the region with the migration and settlement of peoples including Phoenicians<\/a>, Greeks<\/a>, Celts<\/a> and Carthaginians<\/a>. The Romans had driven the Carthaginians out of the Iberian peninsula by 206 BC, and divided it into two administrative provinces, Hispania Ulterior<\/a> and Hispania Citerior.<\/a> Spain remained under Roman rule until the collapse of the Western Roman Empire<\/a> in the fourth century, which ushered in Germanic tribal confederations from Central Europe. The Visigoths<\/a> emerged as the dominant faction by the fifth century, with their kingdom<\/a> spanning much of the peninsula.<\/p>\n In the early eighth century, the Visigothic Kingdom was conquered by the Umayyad Caliphate<\/a>, ushering in over 700 years of Muslim rule<\/a>. During this period, Islamic Spain became a major economic and intellectual center, with the city of C\u00f3rdoba<\/a> being among the largest and richest in Europe. Several Christian kingdoms emerged in the northern periphery of Iberia, chief among them Le\u00f3n<\/a>, Castile<\/a>, Arag\u00f3n<\/a>, Portugal<\/a>, and Navarre<\/a>. Over the next seven centuries, an intermittent southward expansion of these kingdoms\u2014meta-historically framed as a reconquest, or Reconquista<\/a>\u2014culminated with the Christian seizure of the last Muslim polity, the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada<\/a>, in 1492. That same year, Christopher Columbus<\/a> arrived in the New World on behalf of the Catholic Monarchs<\/a>, whose dynastic union of Castile and Aragon is sometimes considered the emergent Spain as a unified country. From the 16th until the early 19th century, Spain ruled one of the largest empires<\/a> in history, which was among the first global empires; its immense cultural and linguistic legacy includes over 570 million Hispanophones, making Spanish the world’s second-most spoken native language. Spain hosts the world’s third-largest number of UNESCO<\/a> World Heritage Sites<\/a>.<\/p>\n Spain is a secular parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with King Felipe VI<\/a> as head of state. It is a highly developed country and a high income country, with the world’s fourteenth-largest economy by nominal GDP and the sixteenth-largest by PPP. Spain has one of the longest life expectancies in the world. Spain is a member of the United Nations (UN)<\/a>, the European Union (EU)<\/a>, the Eurozone<\/a>, the Council of Europe (CoE)<\/a>, the Organization of Ibero-American States (OEI)<\/a>, the Union for the Mediterranean<\/a>, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)<\/a>, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)<\/a>, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE)<\/a>, the Schengen Area<\/a>, the World Trade Organization (WTO)<\/a> and many other international organizations.<\/p>\n Archaeological research at Atapuerca<\/a> indicates the Iberian Peninsula was populated by hominids 1.2 million years ago. In Atapuerca fossils have been found of the earliest known hominins in Europe, the Homo antecessor<\/a>. Modern humans first arrived in Iberia, from the north on foot, about 35,000 years ago. The best known artifacts of these prehistoric human settlements are the famous paintings in the Altamira cave<\/a> of Cantabria in northern Iberia, which were created from 35,600 to 13,500 BCE by Cro-Magnon<\/a>.<\/p>\n Archaeological and genetic evidence suggests that the Iberian Peninsula acted as one of several major refugia from which northern Europe was repopulated following the end of the last ice age.<\/p>\n The largest groups inhabiting the Iberian Peninsula before the Roman conquest were the Iberians<\/a> and the Celts<\/a>. The Iberians inhabited the Mediterranean side of the peninsula, from the northeast to the southeast. The Celts inhabited much of the inner and Atlantic sides of the peninsula, from the northwest to the southwest.<\/p>\n Basques<\/a> occupied the western area of the Pyrenees mountain range and adjacent areas, the Phoenician-influenced Tartessians<\/a> culture flourished in the southwest and the Lusitanians<\/a> and Vettones<\/a> occupied areas in the central west. Several cities were founded along the coast by Phoenicians, and trading outposts and colonies were established by Greeks in the East. Eventually, Phoenician-Carthaginians expanded inland towards the meseta; however, due to the bellicose inland tribes, the Carthaginians got settled in the coasts of the Iberian Peninsula.<\/p>\n During the Second Punic War<\/a>, roughly between 210 and 205 BC the expanding Roman Republic<\/a> captured Carthaginian trading colonies along the Mediterranean coast. Although it took the Romans nearly two centuries to complete the conquest of the Iberian Peninsula<\/a>, they retained control of it for over six centuries. Roman rule was bound together by law, language, and the Roman road.<\/p>\n The cultures of the Celtic and Iberian populations were gradually Romanized (Latinized) at different rates depending on what part of Hispania they lived in, with local leaders being admitted into the Roman aristocratic class. Hispania served as a granary for the Roman market, and its harbors exported gold, wool, olive oil, and wine. Agricultural production increased with the introduction of irrigation projects, some of which remain in use. Emperors Hadrian<\/a>, Trajan<\/a>, Theodosius I<\/a>, and the philosopher Seneca<\/a> were born in Hispania. Christianity was introduced into Hispania in the 1st century AD and it became popular in the cities in the 2nd century AD. Most of Spain’s present languages and religion, and the basis of its laws, originate from this period.<\/p>\n The weakening of the Western Roman Empire’s jurisdiction in Hispania began in 409, when the Germanic Suebi<\/a> and Vandals<\/a>, together with the Sarmatian<\/a> Alans<\/a> entered the peninsula at the invitation of a Roman usurper. These tribes had crossed the Rhine<\/a> in early 407 and ravaged Gaul<\/a>. The Suebi established a kingdom in what is today modern Galicia<\/a> and northern Portugal whereas the Vandals established themselves in southern Spain by 420 before crossing over to North Africa in 429 and taking Carthage<\/a> in 439. As the western empire disintegrated, the social and economic base became greatly simplified: but even in modified form, the successor regimes maintained many of the institutions and laws of the late empire, including Christianity and assimilation to the evolving Roman culture.<\/p>\n The Byzantines<\/a> established an occidental province, Spania, in the south, with the intention of reviving Roman rule throughout Iberia. Eventually, however, Hispania was reunited under Visigothic rule<\/a>. These Visigoths<\/a>, or Western Goths, after sacking Rome<\/a> under the leadership of Alaric<\/a> (410), turned towards the Iberian Peninsula, with Athaulf<\/a> for their leader, and occupied the northeastern portion. Wallia<\/a> extended his rule over most of the peninsula, keeping the Suebians shut up in Galicia. Theodoric I<\/a> took part, with the Romans and Franks, in the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains<\/a>, where Attila<\/a> was routed.<\/p>\n Euric<\/a> (466), who put an end to the last remnants of Roman power in the peninsula, may be considered the first monarch of Spain, though the Suebians still maintained their independence in Galicia. Euric was also the first king to give written laws to the Visigoths. In the following reigns the Catholic kings of France assumed the role of protectors of the Hispano-Roman Catholics against the Arianism of the Visigoths, and in the wars<\/a> which ensued Alaric II<\/a> and Amalaric<\/a> lost their lives.<\/p>\n Athanagild<\/a>, having risen against King Agila<\/a>, called in the Byzantines and, in payment for the succor they gave him, ceded to them the maritime places of the southeast. Liuvigild<\/a> restored the political unity of the peninsula, subduing the Suebians, but the religious divisions of the country, reaching even the royal family, brought on a civil war. St. Hermengild<\/a>, the king’s son, putting himself at the head of the Catholics, was defeated and taken prisoner, and suffered martyrdom for rejecting communion with the Arians.<\/p>\n Recared<\/a>, son of Liuvigild and brother of St. Hermengild, added religious unity to the political unity achieved by his father, accepting the Catholic faith in the Third Council of Toledo (589)<\/a>. The religious unity established by this council was the basis of that fusion of Goths with Hispano-Romans which produced the Spanish nation. Sisebut<\/a> and Suintila<\/a> completed the expulsion of the Byzantines from Spain.<\/p>\n Intermarriage between Visigoths and Hispano-Romans was prohibited, though in practice it could not be entirely prevented and was eventually legalised by Liuvigild. The Spanish-Gothic scholars such as Braulio of Zaragoza<\/a> and Isidore of Seville<\/a> played an important role in keeping the classical Greek and Roman culture. Isidore was one of the most influential clerics and philosophers in the Middle Ages in Europe, and his theories were also vital to the conversion of the Visigothic Kingdom from an Arian<\/a> domain to a Catholic one in the Councils of Toledo.<\/a><\/p>\n Isidore created the first western encyclopedia which had a huge impact during the Middle Ages.<\/p>\n In the 8th century, nearly all of the Iberian Peninsula was conquered<\/a> (711\u2013718) by largely Moorish Muslim armies from North Africa. These conquests were part of the expansion of the Umayyad Caliphate. Only a small area in the mountainous north-west of the peninsula managed to resist the initial invasion. Legend has it that Count Julian<\/a>, the governor of Ceuta, in revenge for the violation of his daughter, Florinda<\/a>, by King Roderic<\/a>, invited the Muslims and opened to them the gates of the peninsula.<\/p>\n Under Islamic law, Christians and Jews were given the subordinate status of dhimmi<\/a>. This status permitted Christians and Jews to practice their religions as People of the Book<\/a> but they were required to pay a special tax and had legal and social rights inferior to those of Muslims.<\/p>\n Conversion to Islam proceeded at an increasing pace. The mulad\u00edes (Muslims of ethnic Iberian origin) are believed to have formed the majority of the population of Al-Andalus by the end of the 10th century.<\/p>\n The Muslim community in the Iberian Peninsula was itself diverse and beset by social tensions. The Berber<\/a> people of North Africa, who had provided the bulk of the invading armies, clashed with the Arab leadership from the Middle East. Over time, large Moorish populations became established, especially in the Guadalquivir River<\/a> valley, the coastal plain of Valencia, the Ebro River<\/a> valley and (towards the end of this period) in the mountainous region of Granada<\/a>.<\/p>\n C\u00f3rdoba, the capital of the caliphate since Abd-ar-Rahman III<\/a>, was the largest, richest and most sophisticated city in western Europe. Mediterranean trade and cultural exchange flourished. Muslims imported a rich intellectual tradition from the Middle East and North Africa. The Romanized cultures of the Iberian Peninsula interacted with Muslim and Jewish cultures in complex ways, giving the region a distinctive culture. Outside the cities, where the vast majority lived, the land ownership system from Roman times remained largely intact as Muslim leaders rarely dispossessed landowners and the introduction of new crops and techniques led to an expansion of agriculture introducing new produces which originally came from Asia or the former territories of the Roman Empire.<\/p>\n In the 11th century, the Muslim holdings fractured into rival Taifa<\/a> states (Arab, Berber, and Slav), allowing the small Christian states the opportunity to greatly enlarge their territories. The arrival from North Africa of the Islamic ruling sects of the Almoravids<\/a> and the Almohads<\/a> restored unity upon the Muslim holdings, with a stricter, less tolerant application of Islam, and saw a revival in Muslim fortunes. This re-united Islamic state experienced more than a century of successes that partially reversed Christian gains.<\/p>\n The Reconquista<\/a> (Reconquest) was the centuries-long period in which Christian rule was re-established over the Iberian Peninsula. The Reconquista is viewed as beginning with the Battle of Covadonga<\/a> won by Don Pelayo<\/a> in 722 and was concurrent with the period of Muslim rule on the Iberian Peninsula. The Christian army’s victory over Muslim forces led to the creation of the Christian Kingdom of Asturias<\/a> along the northwestern coastal mountains. Shortly after, in 739, Muslim forces were driven from Galicia, which was to eventually host one of medieval Europe’s holiest sites, Santiago de Compostela<\/a> and was incorporated into the new Christian kingdom.<\/p>\n The Kingdom of Le\u00f3n<\/a> was the strongest Christian kingdom for centuries. In 1188 the first modern parliamentary session in Europe was held in Le\u00f3n<\/a> (Cortes of Le\u00f3n<\/a>). The Kingdom of Castile<\/a>, formed from Leonese territory, was its successor as strongest kingdom. The kings and the nobility fought for power and influence in this period. The example of the Roman emperors influenced the political objective of the Crown, while the nobles benefited from feudalism.<\/p>\n Muslim armies had also moved north of the Pyrenees but they were defeated by Frankish forces at the Battle of Poitiers<\/a>, Frankia and pushed out of the very southernmost region of France along the seacoast by the 760s. Later, Frankish<\/a> forces established Christian counties on the southern side of the Pyrenees. These areas were to grow into the kingdoms of Navarre<\/a> and Aragon<\/a>. For several centuries, the fluctuating frontier between the Muslim and Christian controlled areas of Iberia was along the Ebro and Douro valleys.<\/p>\n The Islamic transmission of the classics is among the main Islamic contributions to Medieval Europe<\/a>. The Castilian language\u2014more commonly known (especially later in history and at present) as “Spanish” after becoming the national language and lingua franca of Spain\u2014evolved from Vulgar Latin, as did other Romance languages of Spain like the Catalan, Asturian and Galician languages, as well as other Romance languages in Latin Europe. Basque, the only non-Romance language in Spain, continued evolving from Early Basque to Medieval. The Glosas Emilianenses<\/a> (found at the Monasteries of San Mill\u00e1n de la Cogolla<\/a> and written in Latin, Basque and Romance) hold a great value as one of the first written examples of Iberian Romance.<\/p>\n The break-up of Al-Andalus<\/a> into the competing taifa kingdoms helped the long embattled Iberian Christian kingdoms gain the initiative. The capture of the strategically central city of Toledo<\/a> in 1085 marked a significant shift in the balance of power in favor of the Christian kingdoms. Following a great Muslim resurgence in the 12th century, the great Moorish strongholds in the south fell to Castile in the 13th century\u2014C\u00f3rdoba in 1236 and Seville in 1248. The County of Barcelona and the Kingdom of Aragon entered in a dynastic union and gained territory and power in the Mediterranean. In 1229 Majorca<\/a> was conquered, so was Valencia in 1238. In the 13th and 14th centuries, the Marinid<\/a> dynasty of Morocco invaded and established some enclaves on the southern coast but failed in their attempt to re-establish North African rule in Iberia and were soon driven out.<\/p>\n After 781 years of Muslim presence in Spain, the last Nasrid<\/a> sultanate of Granada, a tributary state would finally surrender in 1492 to the Catholic monarchs Queen Isabella I of Castile<\/a> and King Ferdinand II of Aragon<\/a>.<\/p>\n From the mid 13th century, literature and philosophy started to flourish again in the Christian peninsular kingdoms, based on Roman and Gothic traditions. The king Alfonso X<\/a> of Castile focused on strengthening this Roman and Gothic past, and also on linking the Iberian Christian kingdoms with the rest of medieval European Christendom. Alfonso worked for being elected emperor of the Holy Roman Empire<\/a> and published the Siete Partidas<\/a> code.<\/p>\n The 13th century also witnessed the Crown of Aragon, centered in Spain’s north east, expand its reach across islands in the Mediterranean, to Sicily<\/a> and Naples. Around this time the universities of Palencia<\/a> (1212\/1263) and Salamanca<\/a> (1218\/1254) were established. The Black Death of 1348 and 1349<\/a> devastated Spain.[54]<\/p>\n In 1469, the crowns of the Christian kingdoms of Castile and Aragon were united by the marriage of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon. 1478 commenced the completion of the conquest of the Canary Islands and in 1492, the combined forces of Castile and Aragon captured the Emirate of Granada from its last ruler Muhammad XII<\/a>, ending the last remnant of a 781-year presence of Islamic rule in Iberia. That same year, Spain’s Jews<\/a> were ordered to convert to Catholicism<\/a> or face expulsion<\/a> from Spanish territories during the Spanish Inquisition<\/a>. As many as 200,000 Jews were expelled<\/a> from Spain. This was followed by expulsions in 1493 in Aragonese Sicily<\/a> and Portugal<\/a> in 1497. The Treaty of Granada<\/a> guaranteed religious tolerance towards Muslims, for a few years before Islam was outlawed in 1502 in the Kingdom of Castile and 1527 in the Kingdom of Aragon, leading to Spain’s Muslim population becoming nominally Christian Moriscos. A few decades after the Morisco rebellion of Granada known as the War of the Alpujarras<\/a>, a significant proportion of Spain’s formerly-Muslim population was expelled<\/a>, settling primarily in North Africa. From 1609 to 1614, over 300,000 Moriscos were sent on ships to North Africa and other locations, and, of this figure, around 50,000 died resisting the expulsion, and 60,000 died on the journey.<\/p>\n The year 1492 also marked the arrival of Christopher Columbus<\/a> in the New World, during a voyage funded by Isabella. Columbus’s first voyage crossed the Atlantic and reached the Caribbean Islands, beginning the European exploration and conquest of the Americas, although Columbus remained convinced that he had reached the Orient. Large numbers of indigenous Americans died in battle against the Spaniards during the conquest, while others died from various other causes. The death toll may have reached some 70 million indigenous people (out of 80 million) in this period, as diseases such as smallpox, measles, influenza, and typhus, brought to the Americas by the conquest, decimated the pre-Columbian population.<\/p>\n The Spanish colonization of the Americas started with the colonization of the Caribbean. It was followed by the conquest of powerful pre-Columbian polities in Central Mexico and the Pacific Coast of South America. An expedition sponsored by the Spanish crown completed the first voyage around the world in human history, the Magellan-Elcano circumnavigation<\/a>. The tornaviaje or return route from the Philippines to Mexico made possible the Manila galleon trading route<\/a>. The Spanish encountered Islam in Southeast Asia and in order to incorporate the Philippines<\/a>, Spanish expeditions organized from newly Christianized Mexico had invaded<\/a> the Philippine territories of the Sultanate of Brunei<\/a>. The Spanish used the conflict between Pagan and Muslim Philippine kingdoms to pit them against each other thus using the “Divide and Conquer Principle”. The Spanish considered the war with the Muslims of Brunei and the Philippines<\/a>, a repeat of the Reconquista.<\/p>\n The unification of the crowns of Aragon and Castile by the marriage of their sovereigns laid the basis for modern Spain and the Spanish Empire, although each kingdom of Spain remained a separate country socially, politically, legally, and in currency and language.<\/p>\n Two big revolts broke out during the early reign of the Habsburg emperor, Charles V<\/a>: the Revolt of the Comuneros<\/a> in the Crown of Castile and Revolt of the Brotherhoods<\/a> in the Crown of Aragon.<\/p>\n Habsburg Spain<\/a> was one of the leading world powers throughout the 16th century and most of the 17th century, a position reinforced by trade and wealth from colonial possessions and became the world’s leading maritime power. It reached its apogee during the reigns of the first two Spanish Habsburgs\u2014Charles I<\/a> (1516\u20131556) and Philip II<\/a> (1556\u20131598). This period saw the Italian Wars<\/a>, the Schmalkaldic War<\/a>, the Dutch Revolt<\/a>, the War of the Portuguese Succession<\/a>, clashes with the Ottomans, intervention in the French Wars of Religion<\/a> and the Anglo-Spanish War<\/a>.<\/p>\n Through exploration and conquest or royal marriage alliances and inheritance, the Spanish Empire expanded to include vast areas in the Americas, islands in the Asia-Pacific area, areas of Italy, cities in Northern Africa, as well as parts of what are now France, Germany, Belgium<\/a>, Luxembourg<\/a>, and the Netherlands<\/a>. It was the first empire on which it was said that the sun never set. This was an Age of Discovery, with daring explorations by sea and by land, the opening-up of new trade routes across oceans, conquests and the beginnings of European colonialism.<\/p>\n Spanish explorers brought back precious metals, spices, luxuries, and previously unknown plants, and played a leading part in transforming the European understanding of the globe. The cultural efflorescence witnessed during this period is now referred to as the Spanish Golden Age<\/a>. The rise of humanism<\/a>, the Counter-Reformation<\/a> and new geographical discoveries and conquests raised issues that were addressed by the intellectual movement now known as the School of Salamanca<\/a>, which developed the first modern theories of what are now known as international law and human rights. Juan Luis Vives<\/a> was another prominent humanist during this period.<\/p>\n Spain’s 16th-century maritime supremacy was demonstrated by the victory over the Ottomans at Lepanto<\/a> in 1571, and then after the setback of the Spanish Armada in 1588<\/a>, in a series of victories against England in the Anglo-Spanish War of 1585\u20131604. However, during the middle decades of the 17th century Spain’s maritime power went into a long decline with mounting defeats against the United Provinces<\/a> and then England; that by the 1660s it was struggling grimly to defend its overseas possessions from pirates and privateers.<\/p>\n The Protestant Reformation<\/a> dragged the kingdom ever more deeply into the mire of religiously charged wars. The result was a country forced into ever-expanding military efforts across Europe and in the Mediterranean. By the middle decades of a war- and plague-ridden 17th-century Europe, the Spanish Habsburgs had enmeshed the country in continent-wide religious-political conflicts. These conflicts drained it of resources and undermined the economy generally. Spain managed to hold on to most of the scattered Habsburg empire, and help the imperial forces of the Holy Roman Empire reverse a large part of the advances made by Protestant forces, but it was finally forced to recognize the separation of Portugal and the United Provinces, and eventually suffered some serious military reverses to France in the latter stages of the immensely destructive, Europe-wide Thirty Years’ War<\/a>. In the latter half of the 17th century, Spain went into a gradual decline, during which it surrendered several small territories to France and England; however, it maintained and enlarged its vast overseas empire, which remained intact until the beginning of the 19th century.<\/p>\n The decline culminated in a controversy over succession to the throne which consumed the first years of the 18th century. The War of the Spanish Succession<\/a> was a wide-ranging international conflict combined with a civil war, and was to cost the kingdom its European possessions and its position as one of the leading powers on the Continent. During this war, a new dynasty originating in France, the Bourbons<\/a>, was installed. Long united only by the Crown, a true Spanish state was established when the first Bourbon king, Philip V<\/a>, united the crowns of Castile and Aragon into a single state, abolishing many of the old regional privileges and laws.<\/p>\n The 18th century saw a gradual recovery and an increase in prosperity through much of the empire. The new Bourbon monarchy drew on the French system of modernizing the administration and the economy. Enlightenment ideas began to gain ground among some of the kingdom’s elite and monarchy. Bourbon reformers<\/a> created formal disciplined militias across the Atlantic. Spain needed every hand it could take during the seemingly endless wars of the eighteenth century\u2014the Spanish War of Succession or Queen Anne’s War<\/a> (1702\u201313), the War of Jenkins’ Ear<\/a> (1739\u201342) which became the War of the Austrian Succession<\/a> (1740\u201348), the Seven Years’ War<\/a> (1756\u201363) and the Anglo-Spanish War<\/a> (1779\u201383)\u2014and its new disciplined militias served around the Atlantic as needed.<\/p>\n In 1793, Spain went to war against the revolutionary new French Republic<\/a> as a member of the first Coalition<\/a>. The subsequent War of the Pyrenees<\/a> polarized the country in a reaction against the Gallicized elites and following defeat in the field, peace was made with France in 1795 at the Peace of Basel<\/a> in which Spain lost control over two-thirds of the island of Hispaniola<\/a>. The Prime Minister, Manuel Godoy<\/a>, then ensured that Spain allied herself with France in the brief War of the Third Coalition<\/a> which ended with the British naval victory at the Battle of Trafalgar<\/a> in 1805. In 1807, a secret treaty between Napoleon and the unpopular prime minister led to a new declaration of war against Britain and Portugal. Napoleon’s troops entered the country to invade Portugal but instead occupied Spain’s major fortresses. The Spanish king abdicated in favor of Napoleon’s<\/a> brother, Joseph Bonaparte.<\/a><\/p>\n Joseph Bonaparte was seen as a puppet monarch and was regarded with scorn by the Spanish. The 2 May 1808 revolt<\/a> was one of many nationalist uprisings across the country against the Bonapartist regime. These revolts marked the beginning of a devastating war of independence<\/a> against the Napoleonic regime.<\/p>\n Napoleon was forced to intervene personally, defeating several Spanish armies and forcing a British army to retreat. However, further military action by Spanish armies, guerrillas and Wellington’s<\/a> British-Portuguese forces, combined with Napoleon’s disastrous invasion of Russia<\/a>, led to the ousting of the French imperial armies from Spain in 1814, and the return of King Ferdinand VII.<\/a><\/p>\n Spain’s conquest by France benefited Latin American anti-colonialists who resented the Imperial Spanish government’s policies that favored Spanish-born citizens (Peninsulars) over those born overseas (Criollos) and demanded retroversion of the sovereignty to the people. Starting in 1809 Spain’s American colonies began a series of revolutions and declared independence, leading to the Spanish American wars of independence<\/a> that ended Spanish control over its mainland colonies in the Americas. King Ferdinand VII’s attempt to re-assert control<\/a> proved futile as he faced opposition not only in the colonies but also in Spain and army revolts followed, led by liberal officers. By the end of 1826, the only American colonies Spain held were Cuba<\/a> and Puerto Rico.<\/a><\/p>\n In the late 19th century nationalist movements arose in the Philippines and Cuba. In 1895 and 1896 the Cuban War of Independence<\/a> and the Philippine Revolution<\/a> broke out and eventually the United States became involved. The Spanish\u2013American War<\/a> was fought in the spring of 1898 and resulted in Spain losing the last of its once vast colonial empire outside of North Africa.<\/p>\n Although the period around the turn of the century was one of increasing prosperity, the 20th century brought little social peace; Spain played a minor part in the scramble for Africa, with the colonization of Western Sahara<\/a>, Spanish Morocco<\/a> and Equatorial Guinea<\/a>. It remained neutral during World War I. The heavy losses suffered during the Rif War<\/a> in Morocco brought discredit to the government and undermined the monarchy.<\/p>\n After a period of dictatorship during the governments of Generals Miguel Primo de Rivera<\/a> and D\u00e1maso Berenguer<\/a> and Admiral Aznar-Caba\u00f1as<\/a> (1923\u20131931), the first elections since 1923, largely understood as a plebiscite on Monarchy, took place: the 12 April 1931 municipal elections. These gave a resounding victory to the Republican-Socialist candidacies in large cities and provincial capitals, with a majority of monarchist councilors in rural areas. The king left the country and the proclamation of the Republic on 14 April ensued, with the formation of a provisional government.<\/p>\n A constitution for the country was passed in October 1931 following the June 1931 Constituent general election, and a series of cabinets presided by Manuel Aza\u00f1a<\/a> supported by republican parties and the PSOE followed. In the election held in 1933 the right triumphed and in 1936, the left. During the Second Republic<\/a> there was a great political and social upheaval, marked by a sharp radicalization of the left and the right. The violent acts during this period included the burning of churches, the 1932 failed coup d’\u00e9tat led by Jos\u00e9 Sanjurjo<\/a>, the Revolution of 1934<\/a> and numerous attacks against rival political leaders. On the other hand, it is also during the Second Republic when important reforms to modernize the country were initiated: a democratic constitution, agrarian reform, restructuring of the army, political decentralization and women’s right to vote.<\/p>\n The Spanish Civil War<\/a> broke out in 1936: on 17 and 18 July, part of the military carried out a coup d’\u00e9tat<\/a> that triumphed in only part of the country. The situation led to a civil war, in which the territory was divided into two zones: one under the authority of the Republican government<\/a>, that counted on outside support from the Soviet Union<\/a> and Mexico<\/a> (and from International Brigades<\/a>), and the other controlled by the putschists (the Nationalist<\/a> or rebel faction), most critically supported by Nazi Germany<\/a> and Fascist Italy<\/a>. The Republic was not supported by the Western powers due to the British-led policy of non-intervention. General Francisco Franco<\/a> was sworn in as the supreme leader of the rebels on 1 October 1936.<\/p>\n The civil war was viciously fought and there were many atrocities committed by all sides<\/a>. The war claimed the lives of over 500,000 people and caused the flight of up to a half-million citizens from the country. On 1 April 1939, five months before the beginning of World War II, the rebel side led by Franco emerged victorious, imposing a dictatorship over the whole country.<\/p>\n The regime remained chiefly “neutral” from a nominal standpoint in the Second World War, although it was sympathetic to the Axis<\/a> and provided the Nazi Wehrmacht<\/a> with Spanish volunteers in the Eastern Front.<\/a><\/p>\n After World War II Spain was politically and economically isolated, and was kept out of the United Nations. This changed in 1955, during the Cold War<\/a> period, when it became strategically important for the US to establish a military presence on the Iberian Peninsula as a counter to any possible move by the Soviet Union into the Mediterranean basin. In the 1960s, Spain registered an unprecedented rate of economic growth which was propelled by industrialization, a mass internal migration from rural areas to Madrid, Barcelona and the Basque Country and the creation of a mass tourism industry. Franco’s rule was also characterized by authoritarianism, promotion of a unitary national identity, National Catholicism, and discriminatory language policies.<\/p>\n In 1962, a group of politicians involved in the opposition to Franco’s regime inside the country and in exile met in the congress of the European Movement in Munich, where they made a resolution in favor of democracy.<\/p>\n With Franco’s death in November 1975, Juan Carlos<\/a> succeeded to the position of King of Spain and head of state in accordance with the franquist law. With the approval of the new Spanish Constitution of 1978 and the restoration of democracy, the State devolved much authority to the regions and created an internal organization based on autonomous communities<\/a>. The Spanish 1977 Amnesty Law<\/a> let people of Franco’s regime continue inside institutions without consequences, even perpetrators of some crimes during transition to democracy like the Massacre of 3 March 1976 in Vitoria<\/a> or 1977 Massacre of Atocha<\/a>.<\/p>\n In the Basque Country, moderate Basque nationalism<\/a> coexisted with a radical nationalist movement<\/a> led by the armed organization ETA<\/a> until the latter’s dissolution in May 2018. The group was formed in 1959 during Franco’s rule but had continued to wage its violent campaign even after the restoration of democracy and the return of a large measure of regional autonomy.<\/p>\n On 23 February 1981, rebel elements among the security forces seized the Cortes in an attempt to impose a military-backed government. King Juan Carlos took personal command of the military and successfully ordered the coup plotters, via national television, to surrender.<\/p>\n During the 1980s the democratic restoration made possible a growing open society. New cultural movements based on freedom appeared, like La Movida Madrile\u00f1a and a culture of human rights arose with Gregorio Peces-Barba. On 30 May 1982 Spain joined NATO, followed by a referendum after a strong social opposition. That year the Spanish Socialist Workers Party (PSOE) came to power, the first left-wing government in 43 years. In 1986 Spain joined the European Economic Community<\/a>, which later became the European Union.<\/p>\n On 1 January 2002, Spain fully adopted the euro, and Spain experienced strong economic growth, well above the EU average during the early 2000s. However, well-publicized concerns issued by many economic commentators at the height of the boom warned that extraordinary property prices and a high foreign trade deficit were likely to lead to a painful economic collapse.<\/p>\n In 2003 Jos\u00e9 Mar\u00eda Aznar<\/a> supported US president George W. Bush<\/a> in the Iraq War<\/a>, and a strong movement against war rose in Spanish society. On 11 March 2004 a local Islamist terrorist group inspired by Al-Qaeda<\/a> carried out the largest terrorist attack in Spanish history when they killed 191 people and wounded more than 1,800 others by bombing commuter trains in Madrid<\/a>. Though initial suspicions focused on the Basque terrorist group ETA, evidence soon emerged indicating Islamist involvement.<\/p>\n The bursting of the Spanish property bubble in 2008 led to the 2008\u201316 Spanish financial crisis. High levels of unemployment, cuts in government spending and corruption in Royal family and People’s Party served as a backdrop to the 2011\u201312 Spanish protests<\/a>. Catalan independentism<\/a> also rose. On 19 June 2014, the monarch, Juan Carlos, abdicated in favor of his son, who became Felipe VI<\/a>.<\/p>\n A Catalan independence referendum was held on 1 October 2017 and then, on 27 October, the Catalan parliament voted to unilaterally declare independence from Spain to form a Catalan Republic on the day the Spanish Senate was discussing approving direct rule over Catalonia as called for by the Spanish Prime Minister. Later that day the Senate granted the power to impose direct rule and Mr Rajoy dissolved the Catalan parliament and called a new election. No country recognized Catalonia as a separate state.<\/p>\n On 31 January 2020, the COVID-19 virus was confirmed to have spread to Spain, where it has caused as of June 2021 more than 80,000 deaths, causing life expectancy to drop by more than 1 year.<\/p>\n On 18 March 2021, Spain became the sixth nation in the world to make active euthanasia legal.<\/p>\n At 505,992 km2 (195,365 sq mi), Spain is the world’s fifty-second largest country and Europe’s fourth largest country. It is some 47,000 km2 (18,000 sq mi) smaller than France and 81,000 km2 (31,000 sq mi) larger than the US state of California. Mount Teide (Tenerife) is the highest mountain peak in Spain and is the third largest volcano in the world from its base. Spain is a transcontinental country, having territory in both Europe and Africa.<\/p>\n On the west, Spain is bordered by Portugal<\/a>; on the south, it is bordered by Gibraltar<\/a> (a British overseas territory) and Morocco<\/a>, through its exclaves in North Africa (Ceuta<\/a> and Melilla<\/a>, and the peninsula of V\u00e9lez de la Gomera<\/a>). On the northeast, along the Pyrenees<\/a> mountain range, it is bordered by France and Andorra<\/a>. Along the Pyrenees in Girona<\/a>, a small exclave town called Ll\u00edvia<\/a> is surrounded by France.<\/p>\n Extending to 1,214 km (754 mi), the Portugal\u2013Spain border is the longest uninterrupted border within the European Union.<\/p>\n Spain also includes the Balearic Islands<\/a> in the Mediterranean Sea, the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean and a number of uninhabited islands on the Mediterranean side of the Strait of Gibraltar<\/a>, known as plazas de soberan\u00eda (“places of sovereignty”, or territories under Spanish sovereignty), such as the Chafarinas Islands<\/a> and Alhucemas<\/a>. The peninsula of V\u00e9lez de la Gomera is also regarded as a plaza de soberan\u00eda. The isle of Albor\u00e1n<\/a>, located in the Mediterranean between Spain and North Africa, is also administered by Spain, specifically by the municipality of Almer\u00eda<\/a>, Andalusia. The little Pheasant Island<\/a> in the River Bidasoa is a Spanish-French condominium.<\/p>\n There are 11 major islands in Spain, all of them having their own governing bodies (Cabildos insulares in the Canaries, Consells insulars in Baleares). These islands are specifically mentioned by the Spanish Constitution, when fixing its Senatorial representation (Ibiza and Formentera are grouped, as they together form the Pityusic islands<\/a>, part of the Balearic archipelago).<\/p>\n Mainland Spain is a mountainous country, dominated by high plateaus and mountain chains. After the Pyrenees, the main mountain ranges are the Cordillera Cant\u00e1brica<\/a> (Cantabrian Range), Sistema Ib\u00e9rico<\/a> (Iberian System), Sistema Central<\/a> (Central System), Montes de Toledo<\/a>, Sierra Morena<\/a> and the Sistema B\u00e9tico<\/a> (Baetic System) whose highest peak, the 3,478-metre-high (11,411-foot) Mulhac\u00e9n<\/a>, located in Sierra Nevada<\/a>, is the highest elevation in the Iberian Peninsula. The highest point in Spain is the Teide<\/a>, a 3,718-metre (12,198 ft) active volcano in the Canary Islands. The Meseta Central<\/a> (often translated as “Inner Plateau”) is a vast plateau in the heart of peninsular Spain.<\/p>\n There are several major rivers in Spain such as the Tagus<\/a> (Tajo), Ebro<\/a>, Guadiana<\/a>, Douro<\/a> (Duero), Guadalquivir<\/a>, J\u00facar<\/a>, Segura<\/a>, Turia<\/a> and Minho<\/a> (Mi\u00f1o). Alluvial plains are found along the coast, the largest of which is that of the Guadalquivir in Andalusia.<\/p>\n The center-right government of former prime minister Jos\u00e9 Mar\u00eda Aznar worked successfully to gain admission to the group of countries launching the euro in 1999. Unemployment stood at 17.1% in June 2017, below Spain’s early 1990s unemployment rate of at over 20%. The youth unemployment rate (35% in March 2018) is extremely high compared to EU standards. Perennial weak points of Spain’s economy include a large informal economy, and an education system which OECD reports place among the poorest for developed countries, together with the United States and UK.<\/p>\n The automotive industry is one of the largest employers in the country. In 2015 Spain was the 8th largest automobile producer country in the world and the 2nd largest car manufacturer in Europe after Germany.<\/p>\n By 2016, the automotive industry was generating 8.7 percent of Spain’s gross domestic product, employing about nine percent of the manufacturing industry. By 2008 the automobile industry was the 2nd most exported industry while in 2015 about 80% of the total production was for export.<\/p>\n Citrus fruits, vegetables, cereal grains, olive oil, and wine\u2014Spain’s traditional agricultural products\u2014continued to be important in the 1980s. In 1983 they represented 12%, 12%, 8%, 6%, and 4%, respectively, of the country’s agricultural production. Ideal growing conditions, combined with proximity to important north European markets, made citrus fruits Spain’s leading export. Fresh vegetables and fruits produced through intensive irrigation farming also became important export commodities, as did sunflower seed oil that was produced to compete with the more expensive olive oils in oversupply throughout the Mediterranean countries of the European Community.<\/p>\n Spain’s geographic location, popular coastlines, diverse landscapes, historical legacy, vibrant culture, and excellent infrastructure has made the country’s international tourist industry among the largest in the world. In the last five decades, international tourism in Spain has grown to become the second largest in the world in terms of spending, worth approximately 40 billion Euros or about 5% of GDP in 2006.<\/p>\n The Spanish road system is mainly centralized, with six highways connecting Madrid<\/a> to the Basque Country<\/a>, Catalonia<\/a>, Valencia<\/a>, West Andalusia<\/a>, Extremadura and Galicia<\/a>. Additionally, there are highways along the Atlantic (Ferrol<\/a> to Vigo<\/a>), Cantabrian (Oviedo<\/a> to San Sebasti\u00e1n<\/a>) and Mediterranean (Girona<\/a> to C\u00e1diz<\/a>) coasts.<\/p>\n Spain has the most extensive high-speed rail network in Europe, and the second-most extensive in the world after China. As of 2019, Spain has a total of over 3,400 km (2,112.66 mi) of high-speed tracks linking M\u00e1laga<\/a>, Seville<\/a>, Madrid, Barcelona<\/a>, Valencia and Valladolid<\/a>, with the trains operated at commercial speeds up to 310 km\/h (190 mph).<\/p>\n There are 47 public airports in Spain. The busiest one is the airport of Madrid (Barajas<\/a>), with 50 million passengers in 2011, being the world’s 15th busiest airport, as well as the European Union’s fourth busiest. The airport of Barcelona (El Prat<\/a>) is also important, with 35 million passengers in 2011, being the world’s 31st-busiest airport. Other main airports are located in Majorca<\/a> (23 million passengers), M\u00e1laga<\/a> (13 million passengers), Las Palmas<\/a> (Gran Canaria) (11 million passengers), Alicante<\/a> (10 million passengers) and smaller, with the number of passengers between 4 and 10 million, for example Tenerife<\/a> (two airports), Valencia<\/a>, Seville<\/a>, Bilbao<\/a>, Ibiza<\/a>, Lanzarote<\/a>, Fuerteventura<\/a>. Also, more than 30 airports with the number of passengers below 4 million.<\/p>\n The flag of Spain, as it is defined in the Spanish Constitution of 1978, consists of three horizontal stripes: red, yellow and red, the yellow stripe being twice the size of each red stripe. Traditionally, the middle stripe was defined by the more archaic term of gualda, and hence the popular name la Rojigualda (red-weld).<\/p>\n The origin of the current flag of Spain is the naval ensign of 1785, Pabell\u00f3n de la Marina de Guerra under Charles III of Spain<\/a>. It was chosen by Charles III himself among 12 different flags designed by Antonio Vald\u00e9s y Baz\u00e1n<\/a> (all proposed flags were presented in a drawing which is in the Naval Museum of Madrid). The flag remained marine-focused for much of the next 50 years, flying over coastal fortresses, marine barracks and other naval property. During the Peninsular War<\/a> the flag could also be found on marine regiments fighting inland. Not until 1820 was the first Spanish land unit (The La Princesa Regiment) provided with one and it was not until 1843 that Queen Isabella II<\/a> of Spain made the flag official.<\/p>\n![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2021\/11\/Madrid-300x200.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2021\/11\/Spain-in-1210-281x300.png\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>History:<\/h2>\n
Prehistory and pre-Roman Peoples:<\/h3>\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2021\/11\/Cave-of-Altamira-300x200.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2021\/11\/Celtic-Castro-in-Galicia-300x200.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>Roman Hispania and the Visigothic Kingdom:<\/h3>\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2021\/11\/Roman-Iberia-300x205.png\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2021\/11\/The-Roman-Theatre-in-Merida-300x225.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2021\/11\/The-Death-of-the-Frankish-Leader-Roland-300x244.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2021\/11\/Visigothic-Gold-Work-144x300.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2021\/11\/Reccared-I-and-Bishops-during-Council-III-of-Toledo-589-300x266.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>Muslim Era and Reconquista:<\/h3>\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2021\/11\/Umayyad-Conquest-of-Hispania-300x228.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2021\/11\/The-Great-Mosque-of-Cordoba-300x225.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2021\/11\/Petronilla-of-Aragon-and-Ramon-Berenguer-IV-Count-of-Barcelona-293x300.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2021\/11\/San-Millan-Yuso-and-Suso-Monasteries-300x225.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2021\/11\/Isabella-I-242x300.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>Spanish Empire:<\/h3>\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2021\/11\/Ferdinand-II-of-Aragon-224x300.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2021\/11\/Christopher-Columbus-Meets-Isabella-I-of-Castile-and-Ferdinand-II-of-Aragon-300x224.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2021\/11\/English-Ships-and-the-Spanish-Armada-8-August-1588-300x235.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2021\/11\/Main-Trade-Routes-of-the-Spanish-Empire-Copy-300x150.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2021\/11\/Spanish-Empire-Copy-300x153.png\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2021\/11\/The-Family-of-Philip-V-Copy-300x238.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>Liberalism and Nation State:<\/h3>\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2021\/11\/Joseph-Bonaparte-195x300.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2021\/11\/Ferdinand-VII-204x300.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2021\/11\/Manuel-Azana-245x300.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>Civil War and Francoist Dictatorship:<\/h3>\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2021\/11\/Francisco-Franco-217x300.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>Restoration of Democracy:<\/h3>\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2021\/11\/Juan-Carlos-I-222x300.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2021\/11\/Felipe-Gonzalez-signing-the-treaty-of-accession-to-the-European-Economic-Community-on-12-June-1985-300x243.jpeg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2021\/11\/Felipe-VI-212x300.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>Geography:<\/h2>\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2021\/11\/Topographic-Map-of-Spain-300x257.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2021\/11\/Mt-Teide-300x225.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>Economy:<\/h2>\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2021\/11\/Renault-Factory-in-Valladolid-300x199.jpg\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2021\/11\/Spain-Exports-Treemap-2017-300x300.png\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>Transportation:<\/h2>\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2021\/11\/Road-Map-of-Spain-300x213.gif\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2021\/11\/Rail-Routes-in-Spain-300x212.png\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>Flag of Spain:<\/h2>\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2021\/11\/Flag-of-Spain-300x200.png\" "\\"\\"")
<\/a>