{"id":8882,"date":"2021-11-13T04:00:10","date_gmt":"2021-11-13T12:00:10","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/?p=8882"},"modified":"2021-11-13T14:18:30","modified_gmt":"2021-11-13T22:18:30","slug":"sri-lanka","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/sri-lanka\/","title":{"rendered":"Sri Lanka"},"content":{"rendered":"

Introduction:<\/h2>\n

Sri Lanka, formerly known as\u00a0Ceylon, and officially the\u00a0Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, is an\u00a0island country<\/a>\u00a0in\u00a0South Asia<\/a>. It lies in the\u00a0Indian Ocean<\/a>, southwest of the\u00a0Bay of Bengal<\/a>, and southeast of the\u00a0Arabian Sea<\/a>; it is separated from the\u00a0Indian subcontinent<\/a>\u00a0by the\u00a0Gulf of Mannar<\/a>\u00a0and the\u00a0Palk Strait<\/a>, but shares a\u00a0maritime border<\/a>\u00a0with the\u00a0Indian state<\/a>\u00a0of\u00a0Tamil Nadu<\/a>.\u00a0Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte<\/a>\u00a0is its legislative capital, and\u00a0Colombo<\/a>\u00a0is its\u00a0largest city<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0financial center<\/a>.<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/a>
Sri Lanka on the Globe<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Sri Lanka’s documented history goes back 3,000 years, with evidence of prehistoric human settlements that dates to at least 125,000 years ago.<\/sup>\u00a0It has a rich cultural heritage. The earliest known\u00a0Buddhist<\/a>\u00a0writings of Sri Lanka, known collectively as the\u00a0P\u0101li canon<\/a>, date to the\u00a0fourth Buddhist council<\/a>, which took place in 29 BCE. Sri Lanka’s geographic location and deep harbors have made it of great strategic importance, from the earliest days of the ancient Silk Road<\/a>\u00a0trade route to today’s so-called\u00a0maritime Silk Road<\/a>.\u00a0Because its location made it a major trading hub, it was already known to both Far Easterners and Europeans as long ago as the\u00a0Anuradhapura period<\/a>. The country’s trade in luxury goods and spices attracted traders of many nations, which helped to create Sri Lanka’s diverse population. During a period of\u00a0great political crisis<\/a>\u00a0in the\u00a0Sinhalese kingdom of Kotte<\/a>, the\u00a0Portuguese<\/a>\u00a0arrived in Sri Lanka (largely by accident) and then sought to control the island’s maritime regions and its lucrative external trade. Part of Sri Lanka became a\u00a0Portuguese possession<\/a>. After the\u00a0Sinhalese-Portuguese war<\/a>, the\u00a0Dutch<\/a>\u00a0and the\u00a0Kingdom of Kandy<\/a>\u00a0took control of those areas. The\u00a0Dutch possessions<\/a>\u00a0were then taken by the\u00a0British<\/a>, who later extended their control over the whole island,\u00a0colonizing<\/a>\u00a0it from 1815 to 1948. A national movement for political independence arose in the early 20th century, and in 1948, Ceylon became a\u00a0dominion<\/a>. The dominion was succeeded by the\u00a0republic<\/a>\u00a0named Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka’s more recent history was marred by a 26-year\u00a0civil war<\/a>, which began in 1983 and ended decisively in 2009; when the\u00a0Sri Lanka Armed Forces<\/a>\u00a0defeated the\u00a0Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam<\/a>.<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/a>
Provincial Map of Sri Lanka<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Today, Sri Lanka is a\u00a0multinational state<\/a>, home to diverse cultures, languages, and ethnicities. The\u00a0Sinhalese<\/a>\u00a0are the majority of the nation’s population. The\u00a0Tamils<\/a>, who are a large minority group, have also played an influential role in the island’s history. Other long established groups include the\u00a0Moors<\/a>,\u00a0the Burghers<\/a>,\u00a0the Malays<\/a>,\u00a0the Chinese<\/a>, and the indigenous\u00a0Vedda<\/a>. The island has had a long history of engagement with modern international groups: it is a founding member of the\u00a0SAARC<\/a>\u00a0and a member of the\u00a0United Nations<\/a>, the\u00a0Commonwealth of Nations<\/a>, the\u00a0G77<\/a>, and the\u00a0Non-Aligned Movement<\/a>. Sri Lanka is the only South Asian country to have been rated high on the\u00a0Human Development Index<\/a>, and has the second highest\u00a0per capita income<\/a>\u00a0in the region.<\/p>\n

History:<\/h2>\n

Prehistoric Sri Lanka:<\/span><\/h3>\n

The pre-history of Sri Lanka goes back 125,000 years and possibly even as far back as 500,000 years.<\/sup>\u00a0The era spans the\u00a0Palaeolithic<\/a>,\u00a0Mesolithic<\/a>, and early\u00a0Iron Ages<\/a>. Among the\u00a0Paleolithic<\/a>\u00a0human settlements discovered in Sri Lanka,\u00a0Pahiyangala<\/a>\u00a0(named after the\u00a0Chinese<\/a>\u00a0traveller\u00a0monk<\/a>\u00a0Faxian<\/a>), which dates back to 37,000 BP,<\/sup>\u00a0Batadombalena<\/a>\u00a0(28,500 BP)<\/sup>\u00a0and\u00a0Belilena<\/a>\u00a0(12,000 BP) are the most important. In these caves, archaeologists have found the remains of\u00a0anatomically<\/a>\u00a0modern\u00a0humans<\/a>\u00a0which they have named\u00a0Balangoda Man<\/a>, and other evidence<\/sup>\u00a0suggesting that they may have engaged in\u00a0agriculture<\/a> and kept domestic dogs for driving game.<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/a>
Balangoda Man<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

The earliest inhabitants of Sri Lanka were probably ancestors of the\u00a0Vedda people<\/a>,<\/sup>\u00a0an indigenous people numbering approximately 2,500 living in modern-day Sri Lanka.<\/p>\n

During the protohistoric period (1000\u2013500 BCE) Sri Lanka was culturally united with southern India,<\/sup>\u00a0and shared the same megalithic burials,\u00a0pottery<\/a>, iron technology, farming techniques and\u00a0megalithic graffiti<\/a>.\u00a0This cultural complex spread from southern India along with Dravidian clans such as the\u00a0Velir<\/a>, prior to the migration of\u00a0Prakrit<\/a> speakers.<\/sup><\/p>\n

One of the first written references to the island is found in the Indian\u00a0epic<\/a>\u00a0Ramayana<\/a>, which provides details of a kingdom named\u00a0Lanka<\/a><\/i>\u00a0that was created by the divine sculptor\u00a0Vishwakarma<\/a>\u00a0for\u00a0Kubera<\/a>, the Lord of Wealth.<\/sup>\u00a0It is said that Kubera was overthrown by his demon stepbrother\u00a0Ravana<\/a>.<\/p>\n

Ancient Sri Lanka:<\/span><\/h3>\n

According to the Mah\u0101vamsa<\/a><\/i>, a\u00a0P\u0101\u1e37i<\/a>\u00a0chronicle written in the 5th century CE, the original inhabitants of Sri Lanka are said to be the\u00a0Yakshas<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0Nagas<\/a>. Ancient cemeteries that were used before 600\u00a0BCE<\/a> and other signs of advanced civilization have also been discovered in Sri Lanka.<\/sup>\u00a0Sinhalese history traditionally starts in 543 BCE with the arrival of\u00a0Prince Vijaya<\/a>, a semi-legendary prince who sailed with 700 followers to Sri Lanka, after being expelled from\u00a0Vanga Kingdom<\/a>\u00a0(present-day\u00a0Bengal<\/a>).<\/sup>\u00a0He established the\u00a0Kingdom of Tambapanni<\/a>, near modern-day\u00a0Mannar<\/a>. Vijaya (Singha) is the first of the approximately\u00a0189 monarchs of Sri Lanka<\/a>\u00a0described in chronicles such as the\u00a0Dipavamsa<\/a><\/i>,\u00a0Mah\u0101va\u1e43sa<\/i>,\u00a0C\u016b\u1e37ava\u1e43sa<\/a><\/i>, and\u00a0R\u0101j\u0101valiya<\/i>.<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/a>
Ptolemy’s World Map of Ceylon, First Century CE<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Once\u00a0Prakrit<\/a>\u00a0speakers had attained dominance on the island, the\u00a0Mahavamsa<\/a>\u00a0further recounts the later migration of royal brides and service castes from the Tamil\u00a0Pandya Kingdom<\/a>\u00a0to the\u00a0Anuradhapura Kingdom<\/a>\u00a0in the early historic period.<\/sup><\/p>\n

\n
\n
\n
The <\/span>Anuradhapura period<\/a>\u00a0(377 BCE\u00a0\u2013 1017 CE) began with the establishment of the\u00a0<\/span>Anuradhapura Kingdom<\/a>\u00a0in 380 BCE during the reign of\u00a0<\/span>Pandukabhaya<\/a>. Thereafter, Anuradhapura served as the\u00a0<\/span>capital city<\/a>\u00a0of the country for nearly 1,400 years.<\/span><\/sup>\u00a0Ancient Sri Lankans excelled at building certain types of\u00a0<\/span>structures<\/a>\u00a0such as\u00a0<\/span>tanks<\/a>,\u00a0<\/span>dagobas<\/a>\u00a0and palaces.<\/span><\/sup>\u00a0Society underwent a major transformation during the reign of\u00a0<\/span>Devanampiya Tissa<\/a>, with the arrival of\u00a0<\/span>Buddhism<\/a>\u00a0from India. In 250 BCE,<\/span><\/sup>\u00a0<\/span>Mahinda<\/a>, a\u00a0<\/span>bhikkhu<\/a>\u00a0and the son of the\u00a0<\/span>Mauryan<\/a>\u00a0Emperor\u00a0<\/span>Ashoka<\/a>\u00a0arrived in\u00a0<\/span>Mihintale<\/a>\u00a0carrying the message of Buddhism.<\/span><\/sup>\u00a0His mission won over the monarch, who embraced the faith and propagated it throughout the\u00a0<\/span>Sinhalese population<\/a>.<\/span><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

Succeeding kingdoms of Sri Lanka would maintain many\u00a0Buddhist schools<\/a>\u00a0and monasteries and support the propagation of Buddhism into other countries in\u00a0Southeast Asia<\/a>. Sri Lankan Bhikkhus studied in India’s famous ancient Buddhist University of\u00a0Nalanda<\/a>, which was destroyed by\u00a0Bakhtiyar Khilji<\/a>. It is probable that many of the scriptures from Nalanda are preserved in Sri Lanka’s many monasteries and that the written form of the\u00a0Tripi\u1e6daka<\/a>, including Sinhalese Buddhist literature, were part of the University of Nalanda.<\/sup> In 245 BCE, bhikkhuni<\/a>\u00a0Sanghamitta<\/a>\u00a0arrived with the\u00a0Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi<\/a>\u00a0tree, which is considered to be a sapling from the historical\u00a0Bodhi Tree<\/a>\u00a0under which\u00a0Gautama Buddha<\/a>\u00a0became enlightened.<\/sup>\u00a0It is considered the oldest human-planted tree (with a continuous historical record) in the world. (Bodhivamsa<\/a>)<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/a>
The Avukana Buddha Statue<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Sri Lanka experienced the first of many foreign invasions during the reign of\u00a0Suratissa<\/a>, who was defeated by two horse traders named\u00a0Sena and Guttika<\/a>\u00a0from\u00a0South India<\/a>.<\/sup>\u00a0The next invasion came immediately in 205 BCE by a\u00a0Chola<\/a>\u00a0named\u00a0Elara<\/a>, who overthrew\u00a0Asela<\/a>\u00a0and ruled the country for 44 years.\u00a0Dutugamunu<\/a>, the eldest son of the southern regional sub-king,\u00a0Kavan Tissa<\/a>, defeated Elara in the\u00a0Battle of Vijithapura<\/a>. During its two and a half millennia of existence, the\u00a0Sinhala Kingdom<\/a> was invaded at least eight times by neighboring South Indian dynasties such as the\u00a0Chola<\/a>,\u00a0Pandya<\/a>,\u00a0Chera<\/a>, and\u00a0Pallava<\/a>. These invaders were all subsequently driven back.<\/sup>\u00a0There also were incursions by the kingdoms of\u00a0Kalinga<\/a>\u00a0(modern\u00a0Odisha<\/a>) and from the\u00a0Malay Peninsula<\/a>\u00a0as well.<\/p>\n

\n
\n
\n
The <\/span>Fourth Buddhist Council<\/a>\u00a0of\u00a0<\/span>Theravada<\/a>\u00a0Buddhism was held at the\u00a0<\/span>Anuradhapura Maha Viharaya<\/a>\u00a0in Sri Lanka under the patronage of\u00a0<\/span>Valagamba of Anuradhapura<\/a>\u00a0in 25 BCE. The council was held in response to a year in which the harvests in Sri Lanka were particularly poor and many\u00a0<\/span>Buddhist monks<\/a>\u00a0subsequently died of starvation. Because the\u00a0<\/span>P\u0101li Canon<\/a>\u00a0was at that time\u00a0<\/span>oral literature<\/a>\u00a0maintained in several recensions by\u00a0<\/span>dhammabh\u0101\u1e47aka<\/i>s (<\/span>dharma<\/a>\u00a0reciters), the surviving monks recognized\u00a0the danger of not writing it down so that even if some of the monks whose duty it was to study and remember parts of the Canon for later generations died, the teachings would not be lost.<\/sup>\u00a0After the council,\u00a0<\/span>palm-leaf manuscripts<\/a>\u00a0containing the completed Canon were taken to other countries such as\u00a0<\/span>Burma<\/a>,\u00a0<\/span>Thailand<\/a>,\u00a0<\/span>Cambodia<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0<\/span>Laos<\/a>.<\/span><\/div>\n
<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

Sri Lanka was the first Asian country known to have a female ruler:\u00a0Anula of Anuradhapura<\/a>\u00a0(r. 47\u201342 BCE).<\/sup>\u00a0Sri Lankan monarchs undertook some remarkable construction projects such as\u00a0Sigiriya<\/a>, the so-called “Fortress in the Sky”, built during the reign of\u00a0Kashyapa I of Anuradhapura<\/a>, who ruled between 477 and 495. The Sigiriya rock fortress is surrounded by an extensive network of ramparts and moats. Inside this protective enclosure were gardens, ponds, pavilions, palaces and other structures.<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/a>
The Sigiriya Rock Fortress<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

In 993 CE, the invasion of\u00a0Chola emperor<\/a>\u00a0Rajaraja I<\/a>\u00a0forced the then Sinhalese ruler\u00a0Mahinda V<\/a>\u00a0to flee to the southern part of Sri Lanka. Taking advantage of this situation,\u00a0Rajendra I<\/a>, son of Rajaraja I, launched a large invasion in 1017. Mahinda V was captured and taken to India, and the Cholas\u00a0sacked the city of Anuradhapura<\/a>\u00a0causing the fall of\u00a0Anuradhapura Kingdom<\/a>. Subsequently, they moved the capital to\u00a0Polonnaruwa<\/a>.<\/p>\n

Post-classical Sri Lanka:<\/span><\/h3>\n

Following a seventeen-year-long campaign,\u00a0Vijayabahu I<\/a> successfully drove the Chola out of Sri Lanka in 1070, reuniting the country for the first time in over a century.\u00a0Upon his request, ordained monks were sent from\u00a0Burma<\/a> to Sri Lanka to re-establish Buddhism, which had almost disappeared from the country during the Chola reign. During the medieval period, Sri Lanka was divided into three sub-territories, namely\u00a0Ruhunu<\/a>, Pihiti and\u00a0Maya<\/a>.<\/p>\n

Sri Lanka’s\u00a0irrigation system<\/a>\u00a0was extensively expanded during the reign of\u00a0Par\u0101kramab\u0101hu the Great<\/a>\u00a0(1153\u20131186).<\/sup> This period is considered as a time when Sri Lanka was at the height of its power. He built 1,470 reservoirs \u2013 the highest number by any ruler in Sri Lanka’s history \u2013 repaired 165 dams, 3,910 canals, 163 major reservoirs, and 2,376 mini-reservoirs.<\/sup>\u00a0His most famous construction is the\u00a0Parakrama Samudra<\/a>,\u00a0the largest irrigation project of medieval Sri Lanka. Par\u0101kramab\u0101hu’s reign is memorable for two major campaigns \u2013 in the south of India as part of a Pandyan war of succession, and a punitive strike against the kings of Ramanna (Burma<\/a>) for various perceived insults to Sri Lanka.<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/a>
The seated image of Gal Vihara in Polonnaruwa, 12th centuryThe seated image of Gal Vihara in Polonnaruwa, 12th century<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

After his demise, Sri Lanka gradually decayed in power. In 1215,\u00a0Kalinga Magha<\/a>, an invader with uncertain origins, identified as the founder of the Jaffna kingdom, invaded and captured the\u00a0Kingdom of Polonnaruwa<\/a>. He sailed from\u00a0Kalinga<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0690 nautical miles on 100 large ships with a 24,000 strong army. Unlike previous invaders, he\u00a0looted<\/a>, ransacked, and destroyed everything in the ancient Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa Kingdoms beyond recovery.<\/sup>\u00a0His priorities in ruling were to extract as much as possible from the land and overturn as many of the traditions of\u00a0Rajarata<\/a>\u00a0as possible. His reign saw the massive migration of native\u00a0Sinhalese people<\/a> to the south and west of Sri Lanka, and into the mountainous interior, in a bid to escape his power.<\/sup><\/p>\n

Sri Lanka never really recovered from the impact of Kalinga Magha’s invasion. King Vijayab\u00e2hu III, who led the resistance, brought the kingdom to\u00a0Dambadeniya<\/a>. The north, in the meanwhile, eventually evolved into the\u00a0Jaffna kingdom<\/a>. The Jaffna kingdom never came under the rule of any kingdom of the south except on one occasion; in 1450, following the conquest led by king\u00a0Par\u00e2kramab\u00e2hu VI<\/a>‘s adopted son,\u00a0Prince Sapumal<\/a>.<\/sup>\u00a0He ruled the North from 1450 to 1467 CE.<\/sup><\/p>\n

The next three centuries starting from 1215 were marked by kaleidoscopically shifting collections of capitals in south and central Sri Lanka, including Dambadeniya,\u00a0Yapahuwa<\/a>,\u00a0Gampola<\/a>,\u00a0Raigama<\/a>,\u00a0Kotte<\/a>,<\/sup>\u00a0Sitawaka<\/a>, and finally,\u00a0Kandy<\/a>.<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/a>
Zheng He<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Chinese admiral\u00a0Zheng He<\/a>\u00a0and his naval expeditionary force landed at Galle, Sri Lanka in 1409 and got into\u00a0battle<\/a>\u00a0with the local king\u00a0Vira Alakesvara of Gampola<\/a>. Zheng He captured King Vira Alakesvara and later released him.\u00a0Zheng He erected the\u00a0Galle Trilingual Inscription<\/a>, a stone tablet at\u00a0Galle<\/a>\u00a0written in three\u00a0languages<\/a>\u00a0(Chinese<\/a>,\u00a0Tamil<\/a>, and\u00a0Persian<\/a>), to commemorate his visit.\u00a0The\u00a0stele<\/a>\u00a0was discovered by S. H. Thomlin at Galle in 1911 and is now preserved in the\u00a0Colombo National Museum<\/a>.<\/p>\n

Early Modern Sri Lanka:<\/span><\/h3>\n
\n
\n
\n

The early modern period of Sri Lanka begins with the arrival of <\/span>Portuguese<\/a>\u00a0soldier and explorer\u00a0<\/span>Louren\u00e7o de Almeida<\/a>, the son of\u00a0<\/span>Francisco de Almeida<\/a>, in 1505.<\/span><\/sup>\u00a0In 1517, the Portuguese built a fort at the port city of\u00a0<\/span>Colombo<\/a>\u00a0and gradually extended their control over the coastal areas. In 1592, after decades of intermittent warfare with the Portuguese,\u00a0<\/span>Vimaladharmasuriya I<\/a>\u00a0moved his kingdom to the inland city of\u00a0<\/span>Kandy<\/a>, a location he thought more secure from attack.<\/span><\/sup>\u00a0In 1619, succumbing to attacks by the Portuguese, the independent existence of the\u00a0<\/span>Jaffna kingdom<\/a> came to an end.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

\"\"<\/a>
Dutch Explorer Joris van Spilbergen Meeting with King Vimaladharmasuriya in 1602<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n
During the reign of the\u00a0<\/span>Rajasinha II<\/a>,\u00a0<\/span>Dutch<\/a>\u00a0explorers arrived on the island. In 1638, the king signed a\u00a0<\/span>treaty<\/a>\u00a0with the\u00a0<\/span>Dutch East India Company<\/a>\u00a0to get rid of the Portuguese who ruled most of the coastal areas.<\/span><\/sup>\u00a0The following\u00a0<\/span>Dutch\u2013Portuguese War<\/a>\u00a0resulted in a Dutch victory, with Colombo falling into Dutch hands by 1656. The Dutch remained in the areas they had captured, thereby violating the treaty they had signed in 1638. The\u00a0<\/span>Burgher people<\/a>, a distinct ethnic group, emerged as a result of intermingling between the Dutch and native Sri Lankans in this period.<\/span><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

The Kingdom of Kandy was the last independent monarchy of Sri Lanka.<\/sup>\u00a0In 1595, Vimaladharmasurya brought the sacred\u00a0Tooth Relic<\/a>\u00a0\u2013 the traditional symbol of royal and religious authority amongst the\u00a0Sinhalese<\/a>\u00a0\u2013 to Kandy, and built the\u00a0Temple of the Tooth<\/a>.<\/sup>\u00a0In spite of on-going intermittent warfare with Europeans, the kingdom survived. Later, a crisis of succession emerged in Kandy upon king\u00a0Vira Narendrasinha<\/a>‘s death in 1739. He was married to a\u00a0Telugu<\/a>-speaking\u00a0Nayakkar<\/a>\u00a0princess from South India (Madurai<\/a>) and was childless by her.<\/sup><\/p>\n

Eventually, with the support of\u00a0bhikku<\/a>\u00a0Weliwita Sarankara, the crown passed to the brother of one of Narendrasinha’s princesses, overlooking the right of\u00a0“Unambuwe Bandara”<\/i>, Narendrasinha’s own son by a Sinhalese\u00a0concubine<\/a>.\u00a0The new king was crowned\u00a0Sri Vijaya Rajasinha<\/a> later that year. Kings of the Nayakkar dynasty launched several attacks on Dutch controlled areas, which proved to be unsuccessful.<\/p>\n

During the\u00a0Napoleonic Wars<\/a>, fearing that French control of the Netherlands might deliver Sri Lanka to the French, Great Britain occupied the coastal areas of the island (which they\u00a0called<\/a>\u00a0Ceylon) with little difficulty in 1796.<\/sup>\u00a0Two years later, in 1798,\u00a0Sri Rajadhi Rajasinha<\/a>, third of the four Nayakkar kings of Sri Lanka, died of a fever. Following his death, a nephew of Rajadhi Rajasinha, eighteen-year-old Kannasamy, was crowned.<\/sup>\u00a0The young king, now named\u00a0Sri Vikrama Rajasinha<\/a>, faced a\u00a0British<\/a> invasion in 1803 but successfully retaliated. The First Kandyan War ended in a stalemate.<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/a>
Sri Vikrama Rajasinha of Kandy<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

By then the entire coastal area was under the\u00a0British East India Company<\/a>\u00a0as a result of the\u00a0Treaty of Amiens<\/a>. On 14 February 1815,\u00a0Kandy<\/a>\u00a0was occupied by the British in the\u00a0second Kandyan War<\/a>, ending Sri Lanka’s independence.<\/sup>\u00a0Sri Vikrama Rajasinha, the last native monarch of Sri Lanka, was exiled to India.<\/sup>\u00a0The\u00a0Kandyan Convention<\/a>\u00a0formally ceded the entire country to the British Empire. Attempts by Sri Lankan noblemen to undermine British power in 1818 during the\u00a0Uva Rebellion<\/a>\u00a0were thwarted by\u00a0Governor<\/a>\u00a0Robert Brownrigg<\/a>.<\/sup><\/p>\n

The beginning of the modern period of Sri Lanka is marked by the\u00a0Colebrooke-Cameron reforms<\/a>\u00a0of 1833.[99]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0They introduced a\u00a0utilitarian<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0liberal<\/a>\u00a0political culture to the country based on the\u00a0rule of law<\/a>\u00a0and amalgamated the Kandyan and maritime provinces as a single unit of government.<\/sup>\u00a0An\u00a0executive council<\/a>\u00a0and a\u00a0legislative council<\/a>\u00a0were established, later becoming the foundation of a representative legislature. By this time, experiments with\u00a0coffee<\/a> plantations were largely successful.<\/p>\n

Soon, coffee became the primary commodity export of Sri Lanka. Falling coffee prices as a result of the\u00a0depression of 1847<\/a>\u00a0stalled economic development and prompted the governor to introduce a series of taxes on firearms, dogs, shops, boats, etc., and to reintroduce a form of\u00a0rajakariya<\/i>, requiring six days free labor on roads or payment of a cash equivalent.<\/sup> These harsh measures antagonized the locals, and\u00a0another rebellion<\/a>\u00a0broke out in 1848.<\/sup>\u00a0A devastating leaf disease,\u00a0Hemileia vastatrix<\/a><\/i>, struck the coffee plantations in 1869, destroying the entire industry within fifteen years.<\/sup>\u00a0The British quickly found a replacement: abandoning coffee, they began cultivating tea instead.\u00a0Tea production in Sri Lanka<\/a> thrived in the following decades. Large-scale rubber plantations began in the early 20th century.<\/p>\n

By the end of the 19th century, a new educated\u00a0social class<\/a>\u00a0transcending race and\u00a0caste<\/a>\u00a0arose through British attempts to staff the\u00a0Ceylon Civil Service<\/a>\u00a0and the legal, educational, engineering, and medical professions with natives.<\/sup>\u00a0New leaders represented the various ethnic groups of the population in the\u00a0Ceylon Legislative Council<\/a>\u00a0on a communal basis. Buddhist and Hindu revivalism reacted against\u00a0Christian missionary<\/a>\u00a0activities.<\/sup><\/sup>\u00a0The first two decades in the 20th century are noted by the unique harmony among Sinhalese and\u00a0Tamil<\/a> political leadership, which has since been lost.<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/a>
British Appointed Kandyan Chiefs, 1905<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

In 1919, major Sinhalese and Tamil political organizations united to form the Ceylon National Congress, under the leadership of Ponnambalam Arunachalam<\/a>,<\/sup> pressing colonial masters for more constitutional reforms. But without massive popular support, and with the governor’s encouragement for “communal representation” by creating a “Colombo seat” that dangled between Sinhalese and Tamils, the Congress lost momentum towards the mid-1920s.<\/p>\n

The\u00a0Donoughmore reforms<\/a>\u00a0of 1931 repudiated the communal representation and introduced\u00a0universal adult franchise<\/a> (the franchise stood at 4% before the reforms). This step was strongly criticized by the Tamil political leadership, who realized that they would be reduced to a minority in the newly created State Council of Ceylon<\/a>, which succeeded the legislative council.<\/sup><\/sup>\u00a0In 1937, Tamil leader\u00a0G. G. Ponnambalam<\/a>\u00a0demanded a 50\u201350 representation (50% for the Sinhalese and 50% for other ethnic groups) in the State Council. However, this demand was not met by the\u00a0Soulbury reforms<\/a>\u00a0of 1944\u201345.<\/p>\n

Contemporary Sri Lanka:<\/span><\/h3>\n
\n
\n
The Soulbury constitution ushered in <\/span>dominion status<\/a>, with independence proclaimed on 4 February 1948.<\/span><\/sup>\u00a0<\/span>D. S. Senanayake<\/a>\u00a0became the first\u00a0<\/span>Prime Minister of Ceylon<\/a>.<\/span><\/sup>\u00a0Prominent\u00a0<\/span>Tamil<\/a>\u00a0leaders including Ponnambalam and\u00a0<\/span>Arunachalam Mahadeva<\/a>\u00a0joined his cabinet.<\/span><\/sup><\/sup>\u00a0The\u00a0<\/span>British Royal Navy<\/a>\u00a0remained stationed at\u00a0<\/span>Trincomalee<\/a>\u00a0until 1956. A countrywide\u00a0<\/span>popular demonstration<\/a>\u00a0against withdrawal of the rice rations resulted in the resignation of prime minister\u00a0<\/span>Dudley Senanayake<\/a>.<\/span><\/sup><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike<\/a>\u00a0was elected prime minister in 1956. His three-year rule had a profound impact through his self-proclaimed role of “defender of the besieged Sinhalese culture”.<\/sup>\u00a0He introduced the controversial\u00a0Sinhala Only Act<\/a>, recognizing Sinhala<\/a> as the only official language of the government. Although partially reversed in 1958, the bill posed a grave concern for the Tamil community, which perceived in it a threat to their language and culture.<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/a>
The Formal Ceremony Marking the Start of Home Rule<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

The\u00a0Federal Party<\/a>\u00a0(FP) launched a movement of non-violent resistance (satyagraha<\/a>) against the bill, which prompted Bandaranaike to reach an agreement (Bandaranaike\u2013Chelvanayakam Pact<\/a>) with\u00a0S. J. V. Chelvanayakam<\/a>, leader of the FP, to resolve the looming ethnic conflict. The pact proved ineffective in the face of ongoing protests by opposition and the Buddhist clergy. The bill, together with various government\u00a0colonization schemes<\/a>, contributed much towards the political rancor between Sinhalese and Tamil political leaders.[120]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Bandaranaike was\u00a0assassinated<\/a> by an extremist Buddhist monk in 1959.<\/p>\n

Sirimavo Bandaranaike<\/a>, the widow of Bandaranaike, took office as prime minister in 1960, and withstood an\u00a0attempted coup d’\u00e9tat<\/a>\u00a0in 1962. During her second term as prime minister, the government instituted socialist economic policies, strengthening ties with the\u00a0Soviet Union<\/a>\u00a0and China, while promoting a policy of non-alignment. In 1971, Ceylon experienced a\u00a0Marxist insurrection<\/a>, which was quickly suppressed. In 1972, the country became a\u00a0republic<\/a>\u00a0named Sri Lanka, repudiating its dominion status. Prolonged minority grievances and the use of communal emotionalism as an election campaign weapon by both Sinhalese and Tamil leaders abetted a fledgling Tamil militancy in the north during the 1970s.<\/sup>\u00a0The\u00a0policy of standardization<\/a>\u00a0by the Sirimavo government to rectify disparities created in university enrolment, which was in essence an\u00a0affirmative action<\/a>\u00a0to assist geographically disadvantaged students to obtain tertiary education,<\/sup> resulted in reducing the proportion of Tamil students at university level and acted as the immediate catalyst for the rise of militancy. The assassination of\u00a0Jaffna<\/a>\u00a0Mayor<\/a>\u00a0Alfred Duraiyappah<\/a>\u00a0in 1975 by the\u00a0Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam<\/a> (LTTE) marked a crisis point.<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/a>
Sirimavo Bandaranaike<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

The government of\u00a0J. R. Jayawardene<\/a>\u00a0swept to power in 1977, defeating the largely unpopular\u00a0United Front<\/a>\u00a0government.<\/sup>\u00a0Jayawardene introduced a\u00a0new constitution<\/a>, together with a\u00a0free-market economy<\/a>\u00a0and a powerful\u00a0executive presidency<\/a>\u00a0modelled after that of France. It made Sri Lanka the first\u00a0South Asian<\/a>\u00a0country to\u00a0liberalize<\/a>\u00a0its economy.[129]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Beginning in 1983, ethnic tensions were manifested in an\u00a0on-and-off insurgency<\/a>\u00a0against the government by the LTTE. An LTTE attack on 13 soldiers resulted in the anti-Tamil\u00a0race riots<\/a>\u00a0in July 1983, allegedly backed by\u00a0Sinhalese hard-line<\/a> ministers, which resulted in more than 150,000 Tamil civilians fleeing the island, seeking asylum in other countries.<\/p>\n

Lapses in foreign policy resulted in India strengthening the Tigers by providing arms and training.<\/sup>\u00a0In 1987, the\u00a0Indo-Sri Lanka Accord<\/a>\u00a0was signed and the\u00a0Indian Peace Keeping Force<\/a> (IPKF) was deployed in northern Sri Lanka to stabilize the region by neutralising the LTTE.<\/sup>\u00a0The same year, the\u00a0JVP<\/a>\u00a0launched its\u00a0second insurrection<\/a>\u00a0in Southern Sri Lanka,<\/sup> necessitating redeployment of the IPKF in 1990.<\/sup>\u00a0In October 1990, the LTTE\u00a0expelled Sri Lankan Moors<\/a> (Muslims by religion) from northern Sri Lanka.<\/sup> In 2002, the Sri Lankan government and LTTE signed a Norwegian-mediated ceasefire agreement.<\/p>\n

The\u00a02004 Asian tsunami<\/a> killed over 35,000 in Sri Lanka. From 1985 to 2006, the Sri Lankan government and Tamil insurgents held four rounds of peace talks without success. Both LTTE and the government resumed fighting in 2006, and the government officially backed out of the ceasefire in 2008. In 2009, under the\u00a0Presidency<\/a>\u00a0of\u00a0Mahinda Rajapaksa<\/a>, the\u00a0Sri Lanka Armed Forces<\/a> defeated the LTTE and re-established control of the entire country by the Sri Lankan Government. Overall, between 60,000 and 100,000 people were killed during the 26 years of conflict.<\/sup><\/p>\n

Geography:<\/span><\/h2>\n
\n
\n
\n

Sri Lanka is a pearl-shaped Island nation in South Asia, lying on the <\/span>Indian Plate<\/a>, a major\u00a0<\/span>tectonic plate<\/a>\u00a0that was formerly part of the\u00a0<\/span>Indo-Australian Plate<\/a>.<\/sup>\u00a0It is in the Indian Ocean southwest of the\u00a0<\/span>Bay of Bengal<\/a>. Sri Lanka is separated from the mainland portion of the\u00a0<\/span>Indian subcontinent<\/a>\u00a0by the\u00a0<\/span>Gulf of Mannar<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0<\/span>Palk Strait<\/a>. According to\u00a0<\/span>Hindu mythology<\/a>,\u00a0<\/span>a land bridge<\/a>\u00a0existed between the Indian mainland and Sri Lanka. It now amounts to only a chain of limestone shoals remaining above\u00a0<\/span>sea level<\/a>.<\/span><\/sup>\u00a0Legends claim that it was passable on foot up to 1480 CE, until\u00a0<\/span>cyclones<\/a> deepened the channel.<\/span>\u00a0Portions are still as shallow as 1 meter\u00a0(3\u00a0ft), hindering navigation.<\/sup>\u00a0The island consists mostly of flat to rolling coastal plains, with mountains rising only in the south-central part. The highest point is\u00a0<\/span>Pidurutalagala<\/a>, reaching 2,524 meters (8,281 ft) above sea level.<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/a>
Topography of Sri Lanka<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

Sri Lanka has 103 rivers. The longest of these is the\u00a0Mahaweli River<\/a>, extending 335 kilometres (208\u00a0mi).<\/sup> These waterways give rise to 51 natural waterfalls of 10 meters (33\u00a0ft) or more. The highest is\u00a0Bambarakanda Falls<\/a>, with a height of 263 meters (863 ft).<\/sup>\u00a0Sri Lanka’s coastline is 1,585\u00a0km (985\u00a0mi) long.<\/sup>\u00a0Sri Lanka claims an\u00a0exclusive economic zone<\/a>\u00a0extending 200\u00a0nautical miles<\/a>, which is approximately 6.7 times Sri Lanka’s land area. The coastline and adjacent waters support highly productive marine ecosystems such as\u00a0fringing<\/a>\u00a0coral reefs<\/a>\u00a0and shallow beds of coastal and\u00a0estuarine<\/a>\u00a0seagrasses<\/a>. <\/sup>Sri Lanka has 45\u00a0estuaries<\/a>\u00a0and 40\u00a0lagoons<\/a>.<\/sup>\u00a0Sri Lanka’s\u00a0mangrove<\/a>\u00a0ecosystem spans over 7,000\u00a0hectares<\/a>\u00a0and played a vital role in buffering the force of the waves in the\u00a02004 Indian Ocean tsunami<\/a>.<\/sup>\u00a0The island is rich in minerals such as\u00a0ilmenite<\/a>,\u00a0feldspar<\/a>,\u00a0graphite<\/a>,\u00a0silica<\/a>,\u00a0kaolin<\/a>,\u00a0mica<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0thorium<\/a>.<\/sup><\/sup>\u00a0Existence of\u00a0petroleum<\/a> and gas in the Gulf of Myannmar has also been confirmed, and the extraction of recoverable quantities is underway.<\/sup><\/p>\n

Economy:<\/h2>\n

According to the International Monetary Fund, Sri Lanka’s GDP<\/a>\u00a0in terms of\u00a0purchasing power parity<\/a>\u00a0is the second highest in the South Asian region in terms of\u00a0per capita income<\/a>. In the 19th and 20th centuries, Sri Lanka became a\u00a0plantation economy<\/a>\u00a0famous for its production and export of\u00a0cinnamon<\/a>,\u00a0rubber<\/a>, and\u00a0Ceylon tea<\/a>, which remains a trademark national export. <\/sup>The\u00a0development of modern ports<\/a> under British rule raised the strategic importance of the island as a center of trade.<\/sup> From 1948 to 1977, socialism strongly influenced the government’s economic policies. Colonial plantations were dismantled, industries were nationalized, and a\u00a0welfare state<\/a>\u00a0established. In 1977, the\u00a0free market<\/a> economy was introduced to the country incorporating privatization, deregulation, and the promotion of private enterprise.<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/a>
Treemap of Sri Lanka Exports and Revenue Sources<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n
\n
\n
While the production and export of tea, rubber, coffee, sugar, and other commodities remain important, industrialization has increased the importance of food processing, textiles, telecommunications, and finance. The country’s main economic sectors are tourism, tea export, clothing, rice production, and other agricultural products. In addition to these economic sectors, overseas employment, especially in the Middle East, contributes substantially in foreign exchange.<\/sup><\/div>\n
<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

As of 2010, the service sector makes up 60% of GDP, the industrial sector 28%, and the agriculture sector 12%.<\/sup> The private sector accounts for 85% of the economy.<\/sup>\u00a0China, India and the United States are Sri Lanka’s largest trading partners.<\/sup>\u00a0<\/sup><\/p>\n

Transportation:<\/h2>\n

Sri Lanka has an extensive road network for inland transportation. With more than 100,000\u00a0km (62,000\u00a0mi) of paved roads,<\/sup>\u00a0it has one of the highest road densities in the world (1.5\u00a0km or 0.93\u00a0mi of paved roads per every 1\u00a0km2<\/sup>\u00a0or 0.39\u00a0sq\u00a0mi of land). The road network consists of 35\u00a0A-Grade highways<\/a>\u00a0and two\u00a0controlled-access highways<\/a>\u00a0(E01<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0E03<\/a>).<\/sup><\/sup>\u00a0A and B grade roads are national (arterial) highways administered by Road Development Authority.<\/sup>\u00a0C and D grade roads are provincial roads coming under the purview of the Provincial Road Development Authority of the respective province. The other roads are local roads falling under local government authorities.<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/a>
Road Map of Sri Lanka<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

The\u00a0railway network<\/a>, operated by the state-run\u00a0National Railway<\/a>\u00a0operator\u00a0Sri Lanka Railways<\/a>, spans 1,447 kilometres (900\u00a0mi).<\/sup>\u00a0Sri Lanka also has three deep-water ports at\u00a0Colombo<\/a>,\u00a0Galle<\/a>, and\u00a0Trincomalee<\/a>, in addition to the newest port being built at\u00a0Hambantota<\/a>.<\/p>\n

SriLankan Airlines<\/a>\u00a0is the national airline. Founded in 1979 as Air Lanka, the airline changed its name when it received partial foreign ownership in 1998. It operates to Asia and Europe from its base at Bandaranaike International Airport in Colombo; the airline’s main office is in the Airline Centre at the airport. The airline was scheduled to join the\u00a0Oneworld<\/a> alliance in 2013.<\/sup> SriLankan flies to 62 destinations in 34 countries.<\/p>\n

Bandaranaike International Airport<\/a>\u00a0which is in\u00a0Katunayake<\/a>, north of\u00a0Colombo<\/a>\u00a0is the first international airport which was opened by Prime Minister\u00a0S.W.R.D. Bandaranaike<\/a>\u00a0in 1967 and renamed in 1995.\u00a0Mattala Rajapaksa International Airport<\/a>\u00a0is in Mattala, north of\u00a0Hambantota<\/a>\u00a0was the second international airport opened to the public in March 2013 by President\u00a0Mahinda Rajapaksa<\/a>.\u00a0Jaffna International Airport<\/a>\u00a0became Sri Lanka’s third international airport on 17 October 2019 when it was opened to public by\u00a0President<\/a>\u00a0Maithripala Sirisena<\/a>\u00a0and Prime Minister\u00a0Ranil Wickramasinghe.<\/a><\/p>\n

\"\"<\/a>
Sri Lankan Jets at Colombo Airport<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

<\/sup>Flights connect the airport in Ratmalana<\/a>\u00a0to domestic destinations. Domestic operators are\u00a0Deccan Aviation Lanka<\/a>, Deccan Helicopters, FitsAir, Senok, Helitours and\u00a0Cinnamon Air<\/a>. Sri Lanka has 19 airports. Cinnamon Air actually flies from the main Katunayake Airport and from a lake near Colombo city center, not from Ratmalana.<\/p>\n

Flag of Sri Lanka:<\/h2>\n

The\u00a0flag<\/a>\u00a0of\u00a0Sri Lanka<\/a>, also called the\u00a0Sinha<\/i>\u00a0Flag\u00a0or\u00a0Lion Flag, consists of a golden lion holding a\u00a0kastane<\/i>\u00a0sword<\/a>\u00a0in its right fore-paw in a\u00a0maroon<\/a>\u00a0background with four gold\u00a0bo<\/a>\u00a0leaves, one in each corner. This is bordered by gold, and to its left are two vertical stripes of equal size in\u00a0green<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0orange<\/a>, with the orange stripe closest to the lion. The lion and the maroon background represent the\u00a0Sinhalese<\/a>, while the saffron border and four bo leaves represent concepts of\u00a0mett\u0101<\/a><\/i>,\u00a0karu\u1e47\u0101<\/a><\/i>,\u00a0mudit\u0101<\/a><\/i>\u00a0and\u00a0upeksh\u0101<\/a><\/i>\u00a0respectively. The stripes represent the country’s two largest minorities, with the orange representing the Tamils living in Sri Lanka \u2013 both the native\u00a0Sri Lankan Tamils<\/a>\u00a0and the\u00a0Indian Tamils of Sri Lanka<\/a>\u00a0\u2013 and the green representing the\u00a0Muslims of Sri Lanka<\/a>.<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/a>
Flag of Sri Lanka<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

It was officially adopted in 1972.<\/p>\n

The national flag of Sri Lanka represents the country and its heritage as a rallying device. Most symbols in the flag have been given distinctive meanings.<\/sup><\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
Symbol<\/th>\nRepresents<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n
The Lion<\/td>\nThe Sinhala ethnicity and the strength of the nation<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
The bo leaves<\/td>\nThe four Buddhist virtues of loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy and equanimity<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
The sword of the lion<\/td>\nThe sovereignty of the nation<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
The curly hair on the lion’s head<\/td>\nReligious observance, wisdom and meditation<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
The eight hairs on lion’s tail<\/td>\nThe\u00a0Noble Eightfold Path<\/a><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
The beard of the lion<\/td>\nPurity of words<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
The handle of the sword<\/td>\nThe elements of water, fire, air and earth<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
The nose of the lion<\/td>\nIntelligence<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
The two front paws of the lion<\/td>\nPurity in handling wealth<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Orange stripe<\/td>\nThe\u00a0Tamil<\/a>\u00a0ethnicity (including the\u00a0Hill Country Tamils<\/a>\u00a0of Indian ancestry)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Green stripe<\/td>\nThe\u00a0Moor<\/a>\u00a0ethnicity<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Saffron border<\/td>\nBuddhism and unity among the people<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
The maroon background<\/td>\nThe\u00a0Sinhala<\/a>\u00a0ethnicity<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
The golden yellow border<\/td>\nOther minority communities of Sri Lanka, such as the\u00a0Malays<\/a>, the\u00a0Burghers<\/a>, the\u00a0Indigenous Veddas<\/a>, the\u00a0Kaffirs<\/a>\u00a0and, the\u00a0Sri Lankan Chinese<\/a>, who migrated to Sri Lanka during the 17th\u201319th centuries.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

 <\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

The flag of Sri Lanka, also called the Sinha Flag or Lion Flag, consists of a golden lion holding a kastane sword in its right fore-paw in a maroon background with four gold bo leaves, one in each corner. This is bordered by gold, and to its left are two vertical stripes of equal size in green and orange, with the orange stripe closest to the lion. The lion and the maroon background represent the Sinhalese, while the saffron border and four bo leaves represent concepts of mett\u0101, karu\u1e47\u0101, mudit\u0101 and upeksh\u0101 respectively. The stripes represent the country’s two largest minorities, with the orange representing the Tamils living in Sri Lanka \u2013 both the native Sri Lankan Tamils and the Indian Tamils of Sri Lanka \u2013 and the green representing the Muslims of Sri Lanka.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":9529,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"site-sidebar-layout":"default","site-content-layout":"default","ast-site-content-layout":"","site-content-style":"default","site-sidebar-style":"default","ast-global-header-display":"","ast-banner-title-visibility":"","ast-main-header-display":"","ast-hfb-above-header-display":"","ast-hfb-below-header-display":"","ast-hfb-mobile-header-display":"","site-post-title":"","ast-breadcrumbs-content":"","ast-featured-img":"","footer-sml-layout":"","theme-transparent-header-meta":"default","adv-header-id-meta":"","stick-header-meta":"default","header-above-stick-meta":"","header-main-stick-meta":"","header-below-stick-meta":"","astra-migrate-meta-layouts":"default","ast-page-background-enabled":"default","ast-page-background-meta":{"desktop":{"background-color":"","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-gradient":""},"tablet":{"background-color":"","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-gradient":""},"mobile":{"background-color":"","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-gradient":""}},"ast-content-background-meta":{"desktop":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-5)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-gradient":""},"tablet":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-5)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-gradient":""},"mobile":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-5)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-gradient":""}},"footnotes":""},"categories":[4],"tags":[36,59,26,5,6,7,31,29,18,60],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/8882"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=8882"}],"version-history":[{"count":1,"href":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/8882\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":9530,"href":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/8882\/revisions\/9530"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/9529"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=8882"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=8882"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=8882"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}