{"id":8965,"date":"2021-11-29T04:00:52","date_gmt":"2021-11-29T12:00:52","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/?p=8965"},"modified":"2021-11-30T13:54:27","modified_gmt":"2021-11-30T21:54:27","slug":"switzerland","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/switzerland\/","title":{"rendered":"Switzerland"},"content":{"rendered":"

Introduction:<\/h2>\n

Switzerland, officially the\u00a0Swiss Confederation, is a\u00a0landlocked country<\/a>\u00a0situated at the confluence of\u00a0Western<\/a>,\u00a0Central<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0Southern Europe<\/a>.<\/sup><\/sup>\u00a0It is a\u00a0federal republic<\/a>\u00a0composed of\u00a026\u00a0cantons<\/a>, with federal authorities based in\u00a0Bern<\/a>.<\/sup><\/sup><\/sup>\u00a0Switzerland is bordered by\u00a0Italy<\/a>\u00a0to the south,\u00a0France<\/a>\u00a0to the west,\u00a0Germany<\/a>\u00a0to the north and\u00a0Austria<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0Liechtenstein<\/a>\u00a0to the east. It is geographically divided among the\u00a0Swiss Plateau<\/a>, the\u00a0Alps<\/a>\u00a0and the\u00a0Jura<\/a>, spanning a total area of 41,285\u00a0km2<\/sup>\u00a0(15,940\u00a0sq\u00a0mi) and land area of 39,997\u00a0km2<\/sup>\u00a0(15,443\u00a0sq\u00a0mi). Although the Alps occupy the greater part of the territory, the\u00a0Swiss population<\/a> of approximately 8.5 million is concentrated mostly on the plateau, where the largest cities and economic centers are located, among them\u00a0Z\u00fcrich<\/a>,\u00a0Geneva<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0Basel<\/a>. These cities are home to several offices of\u00a0international organizations<\/a>\u00a0such as the\u00a0WTO<\/a>, the\u00a0WHO<\/a>, the\u00a0ILO<\/a>, the\u00a0headquarters<\/a>\u00a0of\u00a0FIFA<\/a>, the\u00a0UN<\/a>‘s\u00a0second-largest office<\/a>, as well as the main building of the\u00a0Bank for International Settlements<\/a>. The main international airports of Switzerland are also located in these cities.<\/p>\n

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Switzerland on the Globe<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

The\u00a0establishment<\/a>\u00a0of the\u00a0Old Swiss Confederacy<\/a>\u00a0dates to the\u00a0late medieval period<\/a>, resulting from a series of military successes against\u00a0Austria<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0Burgundy<\/a>. Swiss independence from the\u00a0Holy Roman Empire<\/a> was formally recognized in the\u00a0Peace of Westphalia<\/a>\u00a0in 1648. The\u00a0Federal Charter of 1291<\/a>\u00a0is considered the founding document of Switzerland which is celebrated on\u00a0Swiss National Day<\/a>. Since the\u00a0Reformation<\/a>\u00a0of the 16th century, Switzerland has maintained a strong policy of\u00a0armed neutrality<\/a>; it has not fought an international war since 1815 and did not join the United Nations until 2002. Nevertheless, it pursues an active foreign policy and is frequently involved in peace-building processes around the world.<\/sup>\u00a0Switzerland is the birthplace of the\u00a0Red Cross<\/a>, one of the world’s oldest and best known humanitarian organizations. It is a founding member of the European Free Trade Association<\/a>, but notably not part of the\u00a0European Union<\/a>, the\u00a0European Economic Area<\/a>\u00a0or the\u00a0Eurozone<\/a>. However, it participates in the\u00a0Schengen Area<\/a>\u00a0and the\u00a0European Single Market<\/a>\u00a0through bilateral treaties.<\/p>\n

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Central Bern<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Switzerland occupies the crossroads of\u00a0Germanic<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0Romance<\/a>\u00a0Europe, as reflected in its four main linguistic and cultural regions: German, French, Italian and\u00a0Romansh<\/a>. Although the majority of the population are German-speaking,\u00a0Swiss<\/a>\u00a0national identity is rooted in a common historical background, shared values such as\u00a0federalism<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0direct democracy<\/a>,<\/sup>\u00a0as well as\u00a0Alpine<\/a> symbolism. On\u00a0coins<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0stamps<\/a>, the Latin name,\u00a0Confoederatio Helvetica<\/i>\u00a0\u2013 frequently shortened to “Helvetia<\/a>” \u2013 is used instead of the four national languages. A\u00a0developed country<\/a>, it has the highest nominal\u00a0wealth<\/a>\u00a0per adult<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0and the\u00a0eighth-highest<\/a>\u00a0per capita<\/a>\u00a0gross domestic product<\/a>; it has been considered a\u00a0tax haven<\/a>.<\/sup><\/sup>\u00a0It ranks highly on some international metrics, including\u00a0economic competitiveness<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0human development<\/a>. Its cities such as Z\u00fcrich, Geneva and Basel rank among the highest in the world in terms of quality of life,\u00a0albeit with some of the highest\u00a0costs of living<\/a>\u00a0in the world.<\/sup>\u00a0In 2020,\u00a0IMD<\/a> placed Switzerland first in attracting skilled workers. The\u00a0WEF<\/a>\u00a0ranks it the fifth most competitive country globally.<\/p>\n

History:<\/span><\/h2>\n

Early History:<\/span><\/h3>\n

The oldest traces of hominid existence in Switzerland date back about 150,000 years.<\/sup>\u00a0The oldest known farming settlements in Switzerland, which were found at\u00a0G\u00e4chlingen<\/a>, have been dated to around 5300 BC.<\/p>\n

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The earliest known cultural tribes of the area were members of the <\/span>Hallstatt<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0<\/span>La T\u00e8ne cultures<\/a>, named after the archaeological site of La T\u00e8ne on the north side of\u00a0<\/span>Lake Neuch\u00e2tel<\/a>. La T\u00e8ne culture developed and flourished during the late\u00a0<\/span>Iron Age<\/a>\u00a0from around 450 BC,<\/span><\/sup>\u00a0possibly under some influence from the\u00a0<\/span>Greek<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0<\/span>Etruscan<\/a>\u00a0civilizations. One of the most important tribal groups in the Swiss region was the\u00a0Helvetii<\/a>. Steadily harassed by the\u00a0<\/span>Germanic tribes<\/a>, in 58 BC the Helvetii decided to abandon the Swiss plateau and migrate to western\u00a0<\/span>Gallia<\/a>, but\u00a0<\/span>Julius Caesar<\/a>‘s armies pursued and defeated them at the\u00a0<\/span>Battle of Bibracte<\/a>, in today’s eastern France, forcing the tribe to move back to its original homeland.<\/span><\/sup>\u00a0In 15 BC,\u00a0<\/span>Tiberius<\/a>, who would one day become the second Roman emperor, and his brother\u00a0<\/span>Drusus<\/a>, conquered the Alps, integrating them into the\u00a0<\/span>Roman Empire<\/a>. The area occupied by the Helvetii\u2014the namesakes of the later\u00a0<\/span>Confoederatio Helvetica<\/i>\u2014first became part of Rome’s\u00a0<\/span>Gallia Belgica<\/a>\u00a0province and then of its\u00a0<\/span>Germania Superior<\/a>\u00a0province, while the eastern portion of modern Switzerland was integrated into the\u00a0<\/span>Roman province<\/a>\u00a0of\u00a0<\/span>Raetia<\/a>. Sometime around the start of the Common Era, the Romans maintained a large legionary camp called\u00a0<\/span>Vindonissa<\/a>, now a ruin at the confluence of the\u00a0<\/span>Aare<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0<\/span>Reuss<\/a>\u00a0rivers, near the town of\u00a0<\/span>Windisch<\/a>, an outskirt of\u00a0<\/span>Brugg<\/a>.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

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Augusta Raurica<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

The first and second century AD was an age of prosperity for the population living on the Swiss plateau. Several towns, like\u00a0Aventicum<\/a>,\u00a0Iulia Equestris<\/a>\u00a0and Augusta Raurica, reached a remarkable size, while hundreds of agricultural estates (Villae rusticae<\/a>) were founded in the countryside.<\/p>\n

Around 260 AD, the fall of the\u00a0Agri Decumates<\/a>\u00a0territory north of the Rhine transformed today’s Switzerland into a frontier land of the Empire. Repeated raids by the\u00a0Alamanni<\/a>\u00a0tribes provoked the ruin of the Roman towns and economy, forcing the population to find shelter near Roman fortresses, like the\u00a0Castrum Rauracense<\/a> near Augusta Raurica. The Empire built another line of defence at the north border (the so-called Donau-Iller-Rhine-Limes), but at the end of the fourth century the increased Germanic pressure forced the Romans to abandon the linear defense concept, and the Swiss plateau was finally open to the settlement of Germanic tribes.<\/p>\n

In the\u00a0Early Middle Ages<\/a>, from the end of the 4th century, the western extent of modern-day Switzerland was part of the territory of the\u00a0Kings of the Burgundians<\/a>. The\u00a0Alemanni<\/a>\u00a0settled the\u00a0Swiss plateau<\/a>\u00a0in the 5th century and the\u00a0valleys of the Alps<\/a>\u00a0in the 8th century, forming Alemannia. Modern-day Switzerland was therefore then divided between the kingdoms of Alemannia and\u00a0Burgundy<\/a>.<\/sup>\u00a0The entire region became part of the expanding\u00a0Frankish Empire<\/a>\u00a0in the 6th century, following\u00a0Clovis I<\/a>‘s victory over the Alemanni at\u00a0Tolbiac<\/a> in 504 AD, and later Frankish domination of the Burgundians.<\/p>\n

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Frankish Empire<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Throughout the rest of the 6th, 7th and 8th centuries the Swiss regions continued under Frankish hegemony (Merovingian<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0Carolingian<\/a>\u00a0dynasties). But after its extension under\u00a0Charlemagne<\/a>, the\u00a0Frankish Empire<\/a>\u00a0was divided by the\u00a0Treaty of Verdun<\/a> in 843.\u00a0The territories of present-day Switzerland became divided into\u00a0Middle Francia<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0East Francia<\/a>\u00a0until they were reunified under the\u00a0Holy Roman Empire<\/a> around 1000\u00a0AD.<\/sup><\/p>\n

By 1200, the Swiss plateau comprised the dominions of the houses of\u00a0Savoy<\/a>,\u00a0Z\u00e4hringer<\/a>,\u00a0Habsburg<\/a>, and\u00a0Kyburg<\/a>.<\/sup>\u00a0Some regions (Uri<\/a>,\u00a0Schwyz<\/a>,\u00a0Unterwalden<\/a>, later known as\u00a0Waldst\u00e4tten<\/i>) were accorded the\u00a0Imperial immediacy<\/a>\u00a0to grant the empire direct control over the mountain passes. With the extinction of its male line in 1263, the Kyburg dynasty fell in AD 1264; then the Habsburgs under\u00a0King Rudolph I<\/a> (Holy Roman Emperor in 1273) laid claim to the Kyburg lands and annexed them extending their territory to the eastern Swiss plateau.<\/p>\n

Old Swiss Confederacy:<\/span><\/h3>\n

The Old Swiss Confederacy was an alliance among the valley communities of the central Alps. The Confederacy, governed by\u00a0nobles<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0patricians<\/a>\u00a0of various cantons, facilitated management of common interests and ensured peace on the important mountain trade routes. The\u00a0Federal Charter of 1291<\/a>\u00a0agreed between the\u00a0rural communes<\/a>\u00a0of\u00a0Uri<\/a>,\u00a0Schwyz<\/a>, and\u00a0Unterwalden<\/a> is considered the confederacy’s founding document, even though similar alliances are likely to have existed decades earlier.<\/sup><\/p>\n

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Growth of the Old Swiss Confederacy<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

By 1353, the three original\u00a0cantons<\/a>\u00a0had joined with the cantons of\u00a0Glarus<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0Zug<\/a>\u00a0and the\u00a0Lucerne<\/a>,\u00a0Z\u00fcrich<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0Bern<\/a> city states to form the “Old Confederacy” of eight states that existed until the end of the 15th century. The expansion led to increased power and wealth for the confederation.\u00a0By 1460, the confederates controlled most of the territory south and west of the Rhine to the Alps and the Jura mountains, particularly after victories against the Habsburgs (Battle of Sempach<\/a>,\u00a0Battle of N\u00e4fels<\/a>), over\u00a0Charles the Bold<\/a>\u00a0of\u00a0Burgundy<\/a>\u00a0during the 1470s, and the success of the\u00a0Swiss mercenaries<\/a>. The Swiss victory in the\u00a0Swabian War<\/a>\u00a0against the\u00a0Swabian League<\/a>\u00a0of\u00a0Emperor<\/a>\u00a0Maximilian I<\/a>\u00a0in 1499 amounted to\u00a0de facto<\/i>\u00a0independence within the\u00a0Holy Roman Empire<\/a>.<\/sup>\u00a0In 1501, Basel and Schaffhausen joined the Old Swiss Confederacy.<\/p>\n

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The 1291 Bundesbrief (federal charter)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

The Old Swiss Confederacy had acquired a reputation of invincibility during these earlier wars, but\u00a0expansion of the confederation<\/a>\u00a0suffered a setback in 1515 with the Swiss defeat in the\u00a0Battle of Marignano<\/a>. This ended the so-called “heroic” epoch of Swiss history. The success of\u00a0Zwingli<\/a>‘s\u00a0Reformation<\/a>\u00a0in some cantons led to inter-cantonal religious conflicts in 1529 and 1531 (Wars of Kappel<\/a>). It was not until more than one hundred years after these internal wars that, in 1648, under the\u00a0Peace of Westphalia<\/a>, European countries recognized Switzerland’s independence from the Holy Roman Empire and its neutrality<\/a>.<\/sup><\/p>\n

During the\u00a0Early Modern<\/a>\u00a0period of Swiss history, the growing\u00a0authoritarianism<\/a>\u00a0of the patriciate families combined with a financial crisis in the wake of the\u00a0Thirty Years’ War<\/a>\u00a0led to the\u00a0Swiss peasant war of 1653<\/a>. In the background to this struggle, the conflict between\u00a0Catholic<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0Protestant<\/a>\u00a0cantons persisted, erupting in further violence at the\u00a0First War of Villmergen<\/a>, in 1656, and the\u00a0Toggenburg War<\/a> (or Second War of Villmergen), in 1712.<\/p>\n

Napoleonic Era:<\/span><\/h3>\n

In 1798, the\u00a0revolutionary French<\/a>\u00a0government invaded Switzerland and imposed a new unified constitution.[40]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0This centralised the government of the country, effectively abolishing the cantons: moreover,\u00a0M\u00fclhausen<\/a>\u00a0joined France and the\u00a0Valtellina<\/a>\u00a0valley became part of the\u00a0Cisalpine Republic<\/a>, separating from Switzerland. The new regime, known as the Helvetic Republic, was highly unpopular. It had been imposed by a foreign invading army and destroyed centuries of tradition, making Switzerland nothing more than a French\u00a0satellite state<\/a>. The fierce French suppression of the\u00a0Nidwalden Revolt<\/a>\u00a0in September 1798 was an example of the oppressive presence of the\u00a0French Army<\/a>\u00a0and the local population’s resistance to the occupation.<\/p>\n

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The Act of Mediation<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n
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When war broke out between France and its rivals, Russian and <\/span>Austrian<\/a>\u00a0forces invaded Switzerland. The Swiss refused to fight alongside the French in the name of the Helvetic Republic. In 1803\u00a0<\/span>Napoleon<\/a>\u00a0organized\u00a0a meeting of the leading Swiss politicians from both sides in Paris. The result was the\u00a0Act of Mediation<\/a>\u00a0which largely restored Swiss autonomy and introduced a Confederation of 19 cantons.<\/span><\/sup>\u00a0Henceforth, much of Swiss politics would concern balancing the cantons’ tradition of self-rule with the need for a central government.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

In 1815 the\u00a0Congress of Vienna<\/a> fully re-established Swiss independence and the European powers agreed to permanently recognize Swiss neutrality.\u00a0Swiss troops still served foreign governments until 1860 when they fought in the\u00a0Siege of Gaeta<\/a>. The treaty also allowed Switzerland to increase its territory, with the admission of the cantons of\u00a0Valais<\/a>,\u00a0Neuch\u00e2tel<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0Geneva<\/a>. Switzerland’s borders have not changed since, except for some minor adjustments.<\/p>\n

Federal State:<\/span><\/h3>\n
The restoration of power to the patriciate was only temporary. After a period of unrest with repeated violent clashes, such as the\u00a0Z\u00fcriputsch<\/a>\u00a0of 1839, civil war (the\u00a0Sonderbundskrieg<\/a><\/i>) broke out in 1847 when some Catholic cantons tried to set up a separate alliance (the\u00a0Sonderbund<\/i>).<\/sup>\u00a0The war lasted for less than a month, causing fewer than 100 casualties, most of which were through\u00a0friendly fire<\/a>. Yet however minor the Sonderbundskrieg appears compared with other European riots and wars in the 19th century, it nevertheless had a major impact on both the psychology and the society of the Swiss and of Switzerland.<\/div>\n
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The First Federal Palace in Bern (1857)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n
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The war convinced most Swiss of the need for unity and strength towards its European neighbors. Swiss people from all strata of society, whether Catholic or Protestant, from the liberal or conservative current, realized that the cantons would profit more if their economic and religious interests were merged.<\/p>\n

Thus, while the rest of Europe saw\u00a0revolutionary uprisings<\/a>, the Swiss drew up a constitution which provided for a\u00a0federal layout<\/a>, much of it inspired by the\u00a0American example<\/a>. This constitution provided for a central authority while leaving the cantons the right to self-government on local issues. Giving credit to those who favored the power of the cantons (the Sonderbund Kantone), the national assembly was divided between an upper house<\/a>\u00a0(the\u00a0Council of States<\/a>, two representatives per canton) and a\u00a0lower house<\/a>\u00a0(the\u00a0National Council<\/a>, with representatives elected from across the country).\u00a0Referendums<\/a> were made mandatory for any amendment of this constitution. This new constitution also brought a legal end to\u00a0nobility in Switzerland<\/a>.<\/sup><\/p>\n

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Inauguration in 1882 of the Gotthard Rail Tunnel<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

A system of single weights and measures was introduced and in 1850 the\u00a0Swiss franc<\/a>\u00a0became the Swiss\u00a0single currency<\/a>, complemented by the WIR franc in 1934.<\/sup>\u00a0Article 11 of the constitution forbade sending troops to serve abroad, marking the end of foreign service. It came with the exception of serving the\u00a0Holy See<\/a>, and the Swiss were still obliged to serve\u00a0Francis II of the Two Sicilies<\/a>\u00a0with Swiss Guards present at the\u00a0Siege of Gaeta in 1860<\/a>.<\/p>\n

An important clause of the constitution was that it could be re-written completely if this was deemed necessary, thus enabling it to evolve as a whole rather than being modified one amendment at a time.<\/p>\n

This need soon proved itself when the rise in population and the\u00a0Industrial Revolution<\/a>\u00a0that followed led to calls to modify the constitution accordingly. An early draft was rejected by the population in 1872 but modifications led to its acceptance in 1874.<\/sup>\u00a0It introduced the\u00a0facultative referendum<\/a> for laws at the federal level. It also established federal responsibility for defense, trade, and legal matters.<\/p>\n

In 1891, the constitution was revised with unusually strong elements of\u00a0direct democracy<\/a>, which remain unique even today.<\/p>\n

Modern History:<\/span><\/h3>\n
Switzerland was not invaded during either of the world wars. During\u00a0World War I<\/a>, Switzerland was home to the revolutionary and founder of the\u00a0Soviet Union<\/a>\u00a0Vladimir Illych Ulyanov (Vladimir Lenin<\/a>) and he remained there until 1917.<\/sup>\u00a0Swiss neutrality was seriously questioned by the\u00a0Grimm\u2013Hoffmann affair<\/a>\u00a0in 1917, but that was short-lived. In 1920, Switzerland joined the\u00a0League of Nations<\/a>, which was based in\u00a0Geneva<\/a>, on condition that it was exempt from any military requirements.<\/div>\n
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General Ulrich Wille, appointed commander-in-chief of the Swiss Army for the duration of World War I<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

During\u00a0World War II<\/a>,\u00a0detailed invasion plans<\/a>\u00a0were drawn up by the Germans,<\/sup>\u00a0but Switzerland was never attacked.<\/sup> Switzerland was able to remain independent through a combination of military deterrence, concessions to Germany, and good fortune as larger events during the war delayed an invasion.\u00a0Under General\u00a0Henri Guisan<\/a>, appointed the\u00a0commander-in-chief for the duration<\/a> of the war, a general mobilization of the armed forces was ordered. The Swiss military strategy was changed from one of static defence at the borders to protect the economic heartland, to one of organized long-term attrition and withdrawal to strong, well-stockpiled positions high in the Alps known as the Reduit<\/a>. Switzerland was an important base for espionage by both sides in the conflict and often mediated communications between the\u00a0Axis<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0Allied<\/a> powers.<\/p>\n

Switzerland’s trade was blockaded by both the Allies and by the Axis. Economic cooperation and extension of credit to the\u00a0Third Reich<\/a>\u00a0varied according to the perceived likelihood of invasion and the availability of other trading partners. Concessions reached a peak after a crucial rail link through\u00a0Vichy France<\/a>\u00a0was severed in 1942, leaving Switzerland (together with\u00a0Liechtenstein<\/a>) entirely isolated from the wider world by Axis controlled territory. Over the course of the war, Switzerland interned over 300,000 refugees<\/sup>\u00a0and the\u00a0International Red Cross<\/a>, based in Geneva, played an important part during the conflict. Strict immigration and\u00a0asylum<\/a>\u00a0policies as well as the financial relationships with\u00a0Nazi<\/a> Germany raised controversy, but not until the end of the 20th century.<\/p>\n

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Henri Guisan<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

During the war, the Swiss Air Force engaged aircraft of both sides, shooting down 11 intruding\u00a0Luftwaffe<\/a>\u00a0planes in May and June 1940, then forcing down other intruders after a change of policy following threats from Germany. Over 100 Allied bombers and their crews were interned during the war. Between 1940 and 1945,\u00a0Switzerland was bombed by the Allies<\/a>\u00a0causing fatalities and property damage.[47]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Among the cities and towns bombed were\u00a0Basel<\/a>,\u00a0Brusio<\/a>,\u00a0Chiasso<\/a>,\u00a0Cornol<\/a>, Geneva,\u00a0Koblenz<\/a>,\u00a0Niederweningen<\/a>,\u00a0Rafz<\/a>,\u00a0Renens<\/a>,\u00a0Samedan<\/a>,\u00a0Schaffhausen<\/a>,\u00a0Stein am Rhein<\/a>,\u00a0T\u00e4gerwilen<\/a>,\u00a0Thayngen<\/a>,\u00a0Vals<\/a>, and\u00a0Z\u00fcrich<\/a>. Allied forces explained the bombings, which violated the 96th\u00a0Article of War<\/a>, resulted from navigation errors, equipment failure, weather conditions, and errors made by bomber pilots. The Swiss expressed fear and concern that the bombings were intended to put pressure on Switzerland to end economic cooperation and neutrality with Nazi Germany.<\/sup>\u00a0Court-martial proceedings took place in England and the U.S. Government paid 62,176,433.06 in Swiss francs for reparations of the bombings.<\/p>\n

Switzerland’s attitude towards\u00a0refugees<\/a>\u00a0was complicated and controversial; over the course of the war it admitted as many as 300,000 refugees<\/sup> while refusing tens of thousands more, including Jews who were severely persecuted by the Nazis.<\/p>\n

After the war, the Swiss government exported credits through the charitable fund known as the Schweizerspende and also donated to the\u00a0Marshall Plan<\/a> to help Europe’s recovery, efforts that ultimately benefited the Swiss economy.<\/p>\n

During the\u00a0Cold War<\/a>, Swiss authorities\u00a0considered the construction<\/a>\u00a0of a Swiss\u00a0nuclear bomb<\/a>.\u00a0Leading nuclear physicists at the\u00a0Federal Institute of Technology Z\u00fcrich<\/a>\u00a0such as\u00a0Paul Scherrer<\/a>\u00a0made this a realistic possibility. In 1988, the\u00a0Paul Scherrer Institute<\/a>\u00a0was founded in his name to explore the therapeutic uses of\u00a0neutron scattering<\/a> technologies. Financial problems with the defense budget and ethical considerations prevented the substantial funds from being allocated, and the\u00a0Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty<\/a> of 1968 was seen as a valid alternative. All remaining plans for building nuclear weapons were dropped by 1988.<\/p>\n

Switzerland was the last Western republic to grant women the <\/span>right to vote<\/a>. Some Swiss cantons approved this in 1959, while at the federal level it was achieved in 1971<\/span><\/sup><\/sup>\u00a0and, after resistance, in the last canton\u00a0<\/span>Appenzell Innerrhoden<\/a>\u00a0(one of only two remaining\u00a0<\/span>Landsgemeinde<\/a><\/i>, along with\u00a0<\/span>Glarus<\/a>) in 1990. After obtaining suffrage at the federal level, women quickly rose in political significance, with the first woman on the seven-member\u00a0<\/span>Federal Council<\/a>\u00a0executive being\u00a0<\/span>Elisabeth Kopp<\/a>, who served from 1984 to 1989,<\/span>[40]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0and the first female president being\u00a0<\/span>Ruth Dreifuss<\/a>\u00a0in 1999.<\/span><\/p>\n

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Swiss Governing Cabinet 2003<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

Switzerland joined the\u00a0Council of Europe<\/a>\u00a0in 1963.<\/sup>\u00a0In 1979 areas from the canton of\u00a0Bern<\/a>\u00a0attained independence from the Bernese, forming the new\u00a0canton of Jura<\/a>. On 18 April 1999 the Swiss population and the cantons voted in favor of a completely revised federal constitution<\/a>.<\/p>\n

In 2002 Switzerland became a full member of the United Nations, leaving the\u00a0Vatican City<\/a> as the last widely recognized state without full UN membership. Switzerland is a founding member of the\u00a0EFTA<\/a>\u00a0but is not a member of the\u00a0European Economic Area<\/a>. An application for membership in the\u00a0European Union<\/a> was sent in May 1992, but not advanced since the EEA was rejected in December 1992 when Switzerland was the only country to launch a referendum on the EEA. There have since been several referendums on the EU issue; due to opposition from the citizens, the membership application has been withdrawn. Nonetheless, Swiss law is gradually being adjusted to conform with that of the EU, and the government has signed a number of\u00a0bilateral agreements<\/a>\u00a0with the European Union. Switzerland, together with Liechtenstein, has been completely surrounded by the EU since Austria’s entry in 1995. On 5 June 2005, Swiss voters agreed by a 55% majority to join the\u00a0Schengen treaty<\/a>, a result that was regarded by EU commentators as a sign of support by Switzerland, a country that is traditionally perceived as independent and reluctant to enter supranational bodies. In September 2020, a referendum calling for a vote on end to the pact that allowed a free movement of people from the\u00a0European Union<\/a>\u00a0was introduced by the\u00a0Swiss People’s Party<\/a> (SPP).\u00a0However, the voters rejected the attempts of taking back control of\u00a0immigration<\/a>, defeating the motion by a roughly 63%\u201337% margin.<\/p>\n

Geography:<\/span><\/h2>\n
Extending across the north and south side of the\u00a0Alps<\/a>\u00a0in\u00a0west<\/a>–central Europe<\/a>, Switzerland encompasses a great diversity of landscapes and climates on a limited area of 41,285 square kilometers (15,940 sq mi). The population is about 8.7 million (2020 est.).<\/div>\n
<\/div>\n
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Physical Map of Switzerland<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

Switzerland contains three basic topographical areas: the\u00a0Swiss Alps<\/a>\u00a0to the south, the\u00a0Swiss Plateau<\/a>\u00a0or Central Plateau, and the\u00a0Jura mountains<\/a> on the west. The Alps are a high mountain range running across the central-south of the country, constituting about 60% of the country’s total area. The majority of the Swiss population live in the Swiss Plateau. Among the high valleys of the Swiss Alps, many glaciers are found, totaling an area of 1,063 square kilometers (410 sq mi). From these originate the headwaters of several major rivers, such as the\u00a0Rhine<\/a>,\u00a0Inn<\/a>,\u00a0Ticino<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0Rh\u00f4ne<\/a>, which flow in the four cardinal directions into the whole of Europe. The hydrographic network includes several of the largest bodies of freshwater in Central and Western Europe, among which are included\u00a0Lake Geneva<\/a>\u00a0(also called le Lac L\u00e9man in French),\u00a0Lake Constance<\/a>\u00a0(known as Bodensee in German) and\u00a0Lake Maggiore<\/a>. Switzerland has more than 1500 lakes and contains 6% of Europe’s stock of fresh water. Lakes and glaciers cover about 6% of the national territory. The largest lake is Lake Geneva, in western Switzerland shared with France. The Rh\u00f4ne is both the main source and outflow of Lake Geneva. Lake Constance is the second-largest Swiss lake and, like Lake Geneva, an intermediate step by the Rhine at the border to Austria and Germany. While the Rh\u00f4ne flows into the Mediterranean Sea at the French Camargue region and the Rhine flows into the North Sea at Rotterdam in the Netherlands, about 1,000 kilometers (620 miles) apart, both springs are only about 22 kilometers (14 miles) apart from each other in the Swiss Alps.<\/sup><\/p>\n

Forty-eight of Switzerland’s mountains are 4,000 metres (13,000 ft) above sea in altitude or higher.\u00a0At 4,634\u00a0m (15,203\u00a0ft),\u00a0Monte Rosa<\/a>\u00a0is the highest, although the\u00a0Matterhorn<\/a>\u00a0(4,478\u00a0m or 14,692\u00a0ft) is often regarded as the most famous. Both are located within the\u00a0Pennine Alps<\/a>\u00a0in the canton of\u00a0Valais<\/a>, on the border with\u00a0Italy<\/a>. The section of the\u00a0Bernese Alps<\/a>\u00a0above the deep glacial\u00a0Lauterbrunnen<\/a>\u00a0valley, containing 72 waterfalls, is well known for the\u00a0Jungfrau<\/a>\u00a0(4,158\u00a0m or 13,642\u00a0ft)\u00a0Eiger<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0M\u00f6nch<\/a>, and the many picturesque valleys in the region. In the southeast the long\u00a0Engadin<\/a>\u00a0Valley, encompassing the\u00a0St. Moritz<\/a>\u00a0area in canton of\u00a0Graub\u00fcnden<\/a>, is also well known; the highest peak in the neighboring Bernina Alps<\/a>\u00a0is\u00a0Piz Bernina<\/a> (4,049 m or 13,284 ft). Th<\/sup>e more populous northern part of the country, constituting about 30% of the country’s total area, is called the Swiss Plateau. It has greater open and hilly landscapes, partly forested, partly open pastures, usually with grazing herds, or vegetables and fruit fields, but it is still hilly. There are large lakes found here and the biggest Swiss cities are in this area of the country.<\/p>\n

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Matterhorn<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

Within Switzerland there are two small\u00a0enclaves<\/a>:\u00a0B\u00fcsingen<\/a>\u00a0belongs to Germany,\u00a0Campione d’Italia<\/a> belongs to Italy.\u00a0Switzerland has no exclaves in other countries.<\/p>\n

Economy:<\/h2>\n

Switzerland has a stable, prosperous and high-tech economy and enjoys great wealth, being ranked as the wealthiest country in the world per capita in multiple rankings. The country has been ranked as one of the\u00a0least corrupt countries in the world<\/a>,\u00a0while\u00a0its banking sector<\/a> has been rated as “one of the most corrupt in the world”.\u00a0It has the world’s\u00a0twentieth largest economy<\/a>\u00a0by nominal\u00a0GDP<\/a>\u00a0and the\u00a0thirty-eighth largest<\/a>\u00a0by\u00a0purchasing power parity<\/a>. It is the\u00a0seventeenth largest exporter<\/a>. Z\u00fcrich and Geneva are regarded as\u00a0global cities<\/a>, ranked as\u00a0Alpha and Beta<\/a> respectively. Basel is the capital of the pharmaceutical industry in Switzerland. With its world-class companies, Novartis and Roche, and many other players, it is also one of the world’s most important centers for the life sciences industry.<\/p>\n

Switzerland is home to several large multinational corporations. The largest Swiss companies by revenue are\u00a0Glencore<\/a>,\u00a0Gunvor<\/a>,\u00a0Nestl\u00e9<\/a>,\u00a0Mediterranean Shipping Company<\/a>,\u00a0Novartis<\/a>,\u00a0Hoffmann-La Roche<\/a>,\u00a0ABB<\/a>,\u00a0Mercuria Energy Group<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0Adecco<\/a>.<\/sup>\u00a0Also, notable are\u00a0UBS AG<\/a>,\u00a0Zurich Financial Services<\/a>,\u00a0Richemont<\/a>,\u00a0Credit Suisse<\/a>,\u00a0Barry Callebaut<\/a>,\u00a0Swiss Re<\/a>,\u00a0Rolex<\/a>,\u00a0Tetra Pak<\/a>,\u00a0The Swatch Group<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0Swiss International Air Lines<\/a>. Switzerland is ranked as having one of the most powerful economies in the world.<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/a>
Switzerland Exports 2017<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Switzerland’s most important economic sector is manufacturing. Manufacturing consists largely of the production of specialist\u00a0chemicals<\/a>,\u00a0health and pharmaceutical<\/a>\u00a0goods, scientific and precision\u00a0measuring instruments<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0musical instruments<\/a>. The largest exported goods are chemicals (34% of exported goods), machines\/electronics (20.9%), and precision instruments\/watches (16.9%).<\/sup> Exported services amount to a third of exports.\u00a0The service sector \u2013 especially\u00a0banking<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0insurance<\/a>,\u00a0tourism<\/a>, and\u00a0international organizations<\/a> \u2013 is another important industry for Switzerland.<\/p>\n

Transportation:<\/h2>\n

The most dense rail network in Europe of 5,250 kilometres (3,260 mi) carries over 596 million passengers annually (as of 2015). In 2015, each Swiss resident travelled on average 2,550 kilometers (1,580 mi) by rail, which makes them the keenest rail users. Virtually 100% of the network is electrified. The vast majority (60%) of the network is operated by the\u00a0Swiss Federal Railways (SBB\u00a0CFF\u00a0FFS)<\/a>. Besides the second largest\u00a0standard gauge<\/a>\u00a0railway company\u00a0BLS AG<\/a>\u00a0two railways companies operating on\u00a0narrow gauge<\/a>\u00a0networks are the\u00a0Rhaetian Railway (RhB)<\/a> in the southeastern canton of Graub\u00fcnden, which includes some World Heritage lines, and the\u00a0Matterhorn Gotthard Bahn (MGB)<\/a>, which co-operates together with RhB the\u00a0Glacier Express<\/a>\u00a0between\u00a0Zermatt<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0St. Moritz<\/a>\/Davos<\/a>. On 31 May 2016 the\u00a0world’s longest and deepest railway tunnel<\/a>\u00a0and the first flat, low-level route through the Alps, the 57.1-kilometre long (35.5\u00a0mi)\u00a0Gotthard Base Tunnel<\/a>, opened as the largest part of the\u00a0New Railway Link through the Alps (NRLA)<\/a>\u00a0project after 17 years of realization. It started its daily business for passenger transport on 11 December 2016 replacing the\u00a0old, mountainous, scenic route<\/a>\u00a0over and through the\u00a0St Gotthard Massif<\/a>.<\/p>\n

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Swiss Rail Routes<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Switzerland has a publicly managed road network without\u00a0road tolls<\/a>\u00a0that is financed by highway permits as well as vehicle and gasoline taxes. The Swiss autobahn\/autoroute system requires the purchase of a\u00a0vignette<\/a>\u00a0(toll sticker)\u2014which costs 40\u00a0Swiss francs<\/a>\u2014for one calendar year in order to use its roadways, for both passenger cars and trucks. The Swiss autobahn\/autoroute network has a total length of 1,638\u00a0km (1,018\u00a0mi) (as of 2000) and has, by an area of 41,290\u00a0km2<\/sup>\u00a0(15,940\u00a0sq\u00a0mi), also one of the highest\u00a0motorway<\/a> densities in the world.<\/p>\n

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Road Map of Switzerland<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Zurich Airport<\/a> is Switzerland’s largest international flight gateway, which handled 22.8 million passengers in 2012. The other international airports are\u00a0Geneva Airport<\/a>\u00a0(13.9 million passengers in 2012),[183]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0EuroAirport Basel Mulhouse Freiburg<\/a>\u00a0which is located in France,\u00a0Bern Airport<\/a>,\u00a0Lugano Airport<\/a>,\u00a0St. Gallen-Altenrhein Airport<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0Sion Airport<\/a>. Swiss International Air Lines is the flag carrier of Switzerland. Its main hub is Z\u00fcrich, but it is legally domiciled in Basel.<\/p>\n

Flag of Switzerland:<\/h2>\n

The\u00a0flag of Switzerland displays a white\u00a0cross<\/a> in the center of a square red field. The white cross is known as the\u00a0Swiss cross. Its arms are equilateral, and their ratio of length to width is 7:6. The size of the cross in relation to the field was set in 2017 as 5:8.<\/p>\n

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Flag of Switzerland<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

The white cross has been used as the\u00a0field sign<\/a>\u00a0(attached to the clothing of combatants and to the cantonal war flags in the form of strips of linen) of the\u00a0Old Swiss Confederacy<\/a>\u00a0since its formation in the late 13th or early 14th century. Its symbolism was described by the\u00a0Swiss Federal Council<\/a>\u00a0in 1889 as representing “at the same the\u00a0Christian cross symbol<\/a>\u00a0and the field sign of the\u00a0Old Confederacy<\/a>“.<\/sup>\u00a0As a national ensign, it was first used during the\u00a0Napoleonic Wars<\/a>\u00a0by general\u00a0Niklaus Franz von Bachmann<\/a>, and as regimental flag of all cantonal troops from 1841. The\u00a0federal coat of arms<\/a> was defined in 1815 for the\u00a0Restored Confederacy<\/a>\u00a0as the white-on-red Swiss cross in a heraldic shield. The current design was used together with a cross composed of five squares until 1889, when its dimensions were officially set.[3]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

The\u00a0civil and state ensign<\/a>\u00a0of Switzerland, used by Swiss ships, boats and non-governmental bodies, is rectangular in shape and has the more common proportions of 2:3.<\/sup>\u00a0The Swiss flag is one of only two square\u00a0sovereign-state flags<\/a>, the other being the\u00a0flag of Vatican City<\/a>.[5]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The emblem of the\u00a0Red Cross<\/a> is the Swiss flag with switched colors.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

The flag of Switzerland displays a white cross in the center of a square red field. The white cross is known as the Swiss cross. Its arms are equilateral, and their ratio of length to width is 7:6. The size of the cross in relation to the field was set in 2017 as 5:8.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":9541,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"site-sidebar-layout":"default","site-content-layout":"default","ast-site-content-layout":"","site-content-style":"default","site-sidebar-style":"default","ast-global-header-display":"","ast-banner-title-visibility":"","ast-main-header-display":"","ast-hfb-above-header-display":"","ast-hfb-below-header-display":"","ast-hfb-mobile-header-display":"","site-post-title":"","ast-breadcrumbs-content":"","ast-featured-img":"","footer-sml-layout":"","theme-transparent-header-meta":"default","adv-header-id-meta":"","stick-header-meta":"default","header-above-stick-meta":"","header-main-stick-meta":"","header-below-stick-meta":"","astra-migrate-meta-layouts":"default","ast-page-background-enabled":"default","ast-page-background-meta":{"desktop":{"background-color":"","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-gradient":""},"tablet":{"background-color":"","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-gradient":""},"mobile":{"background-color":"","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-gradient":""}},"ast-content-background-meta":{"desktop":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-5)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-gradient":""},"tablet":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-5)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-gradient":""},"mobile":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-5)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-gradient":""}},"footnotes":""},"categories":[4],"tags":[59,26,5,6,7,60],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/8965"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=8965"}],"version-history":[{"count":1,"href":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/8965\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":9542,"href":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/8965\/revisions\/9542"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/9541"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=8965"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=8965"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=8965"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}