{"id":9143,"date":"2022-02-04T04:00:47","date_gmt":"2022-02-04T12:00:47","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/?p=9143"},"modified":"2022-02-04T13:41:51","modified_gmt":"2022-02-04T21:41:51","slug":"united-kingdom","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/united-kingdom\/","title":{"rendered":"United Kingdom"},"content":{"rendered":"

Introduction:<\/h2>\n

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the\u00a0United Kingdom\u00a0(UK) or\u00a0Britain,<\/sup><\/sup>\u00a0is a\u00a0sovereign country<\/a>\u00a0in north-western Europe, off the north-\u00adwestern coast of the European mainland.<\/sup>\u00a0The United Kingdom includes the island of\u00a0Great Britain<\/a>, the north-\u00adeastern part of the island of\u00a0Ireland<\/a>, and many smaller islands within the\u00a0British Isles<\/a>.<\/sup>\u00a0Northern Ireland shares\u00a0a land border<\/a>\u00a0with the\u00a0Republic of Ireland<\/a>. Otherwise, the United Kingdom is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the\u00a0North Sea<\/a>\u00a0to the east, the\u00a0English Channel<\/a>\u00a0to the south and the\u00a0Celtic Sea<\/a>\u00a0to the south-west, giving it the 12th-longest coastline in the world. The\u00a0Irish Sea<\/a>\u00a0separates Great Britain and Ireland. The total area of the United Kingdom is 93,628 square miles (242,500\u00a0km2<\/sup>).<\/p>\n

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The United Kingdom on the Globe<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

The United Kingdom is a unitary\u00a0parliamentary democracy<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0constitutional monarchy<\/a>.\u00a0The monarch,\u00a0Queen Elizabeth II<\/a>, has reigned since 1952.\u00a0The capital is\u00a0London<\/a>, a global city and financial center with an urban area population of 10.3 million.<\/sup>\u00a0The United Kingdom consists of\u00a0four countries<\/a>:\u00a0England<\/a>,\u00a0Scotland<\/a>,\u00a0Wales<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0Northern Ireland<\/a>.<\/sup>\u00a0Their capitals are London,\u00a0Edinburgh<\/a>,\u00a0Cardiff<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0Belfast<\/a>, respectively. Other than England, the constituent countries have their own\u00a0devolved governments<\/a>, each with varying powers.<\/sup><\/p>\n

The United Kingdom has evolved from a series of annexations, unions and separations of constituent countries over several hundred years. The\u00a0Treaty of Union<\/a>\u00a0between the\u00a0Kingdom of England<\/a>\u00a0(which included Wales,\u00a0annexed in 1542<\/a>) and the\u00a0Kingdom of Scotland<\/a>\u00a0in 1707 formed the\u00a0Kingdom of Great Britain<\/a>. Its\u00a0union in 1801<\/a>\u00a0with the\u00a0Kingdom of Ireland<\/a>\u00a0created the\u00a0United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland<\/a>. Most of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, which formally adopted that name in 1927.<\/p>\n

The nearby\u00a0Isle of Man<\/a>,\u00a0Bailiwick of Guernsey<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0Jersey<\/a>\u00a0are not part of the UK, being\u00a0Crown Dependencies<\/a>\u00a0with the\u00a0British Government<\/a> responsible for defense and international representation.<\/sup>\u00a0There are also 14\u00a0British Overseas Territories<\/a>,<\/sup>\u00a0the last remnants of the\u00a0British Empire<\/a>\u00a0which, at its height in the 1920s, encompassed almost a quarter of the world’s landmass and a third of the world’s population, and was the\u00a0largest empire in history<\/a>. British influence can be observed in the language, culture and the legal and political systems of many of its\u00a0former colonies<\/a>.<\/p>\n

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Elizabeth II<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

The United Kingdom has the world’s\u00a0fifth-largest economy by nominal gross domestic product<\/a>\u00a0(GDP), and the\u00a0tenth-largest by purchasing power parity<\/a>\u00a0(PPP). It has a high-income economy and a very high\u00a0human development index rating<\/a>, ranking 13th in the world. The UK became the world’s first\u00a0industrialized country<\/a>\u00a0and was the world’s\u00a0foremost power<\/a> during the 19th and early 20th centuries.\u00a0Today the UK remains one of the world’s\u00a0great powers<\/a>, with considerable economic, cultural, military,\u00a0scientific, technological<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0political<\/a>\u00a0influence internationally.<\/sup><\/sup> It is a recognized nuclear state<\/a>\u00a0and is ranked\u00a0sixth globally in military expenditure<\/a>.<\/sup>\u00a0It has been a\u00a0permanent member<\/a>\u00a0of the\u00a0United Nations Security Council<\/a>\u00a0since its first session in 1946.<\/p>\n

The United Kingdom is a member of the\u00a0Commonwealth of Nations<\/a>, the\u00a0Council of Europe<\/a>, the\u00a0G7<\/a>, the\u00a0Group of Ten<\/a>, the\u00a0G20<\/a>, the\u00a0United Nations<\/a>,\u00a0NATO<\/a>, the\u00a0Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development<\/a>\u00a0(OECD),\u00a0Interpol<\/a>, and the\u00a0World Trade Organization<\/a>\u00a0(WTO). It was a member state of the\u00a0European Economic Community<\/a>\u00a0(EEC) and its successor, the\u00a0European Union<\/a>\u00a0(EU), from 1973 to its\u00a0withdrawal in 2020<\/a>.<\/p>\n

History:<\/h2>\n

Prior to the Treaty of Union:<\/span><\/h3>\n
Settlement by <\/span>anatomically modern humans<\/a>\u00a0of what was to become the United Kingdom occurred in waves beginning by about 30,000 years ago.<\/span><\/sup>\u00a0By the end of the\u00a0<\/span>region’s prehistoric period<\/a>, the population is thought to have belonged, in the main, to a culture termed\u00a0<\/span>Insular Celtic<\/a>, comprising\u00a0<\/span>Brittonic Britain<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0<\/span>Gaelic Ireland<\/a>.<\/span><\/div>\n
\n
\n
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Stonehenge<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

Prior to the\u00a0Roman conquest<\/a>, Britain was home to about 30 indigenous tribes. The largest were the\u00a0Belgae<\/a>, the\u00a0Brigantes<\/a>, the\u00a0Silures<\/a>\u00a0and the\u00a0Iceni<\/a>. Historian\u00a0Edward Gibbon<\/a>\u00a0believed that\u00a0Spain<\/a>,\u00a0Gaul<\/a>\u00a0and Britain were populated by “the same hardy race of savages”, based on the similarity of their “manners and languages.”<\/sup>\u00a0The\u00a0Roman conquest<\/a>, beginning in 43 AD, and the 400-year\u00a0rule of southern Britain<\/a>, was followed by an invasion by\u00a0Germanic<\/a>\u00a0Anglo-Saxon<\/a>\u00a0settlers, reducing the Brittonic area mainly\u00a0to what was to become Wales<\/a>,\u00a0Cornwall<\/a>\u00a0and, until the latter stages of the Anglo-Saxon settlement, the\u00a0Hen Ogledd<\/a>\u00a0(northern England and parts of southern Scotland).<\/sup>\u00a0Most of the\u00a0region settled by the Anglo-Saxons<\/a>\u00a0became unified as the\u00a0Kingdom of England<\/a>\u00a0in the 10th century.<\/sup>\u00a0Meanwhile,\u00a0Gaelic-speakers in north-west Britain<\/a> (with connections to the north-east of Ireland and traditionally supposed to have migrated from there in the 5th century)<\/sup>\u00a0united with the\u00a0Picts<\/a>\u00a0to create the\u00a0Kingdom of Scotland<\/a> in the 9th century.<\/p>\n

In 1066, the <\/span>Normans<\/a>\u00a0and their\u00a0<\/span>Breton<\/a>\u00a0allies invaded England from northern France. After\u00a0<\/span>conquering England<\/a>, they seized\u00a0<\/span>large parts of Wales<\/a>,\u00a0<\/span>conquered much of Ireland<\/a>\u00a0and were invited to settle in Scotland, bringing to each country\u00a0<\/span>feudalism<\/a>\u00a0on the Northern French model and\u00a0<\/span>Norman-French<\/a>\u00a0culture.<\/span><\/sup>\u00a0The\u00a0<\/span>Anglo-Norman<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>ruling class<\/a>\u00a0greatly influenced, but eventually assimilated with, each of the local cultures.<\/span><\/sup>\u00a0Subsequent\u00a0<\/span>medieval English kings<\/a>\u00a0completed the\u00a0<\/span>conquest of Wales<\/a>\u00a0and made unsuccessful\u00a0<\/span>attempts to annex Scotland<\/a>. Asserting its independence in the 1320\u00a0<\/span>Declaration of Arbroath<\/a>, Scotland maintained its independence thereafter, albeit in\u00a0<\/span>near-constant conflict with England<\/a>.<\/span><\/p>\n

\n
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\"\"<\/a>
The Bayeux Tapestry depicts the Battle of Hastings, 1066, and the events leading to it.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

The English monarchs, through inheritance of\u00a0substantial territories in France<\/a>\u00a0and claims to the French crown, were also heavily involved in conflicts in France, most notably the\u00a0Hundred Years War<\/a>, while the\u00a0Kings of Scots<\/a>\u00a0were in\u00a0an alliance with the French<\/a>\u00a0during this period.<\/sup>\u00a0Early modern Britain<\/a>\u00a0saw religious conflict resulting from the\u00a0Reformation<\/a>\u00a0and the introduction of\u00a0Protestant<\/a>\u00a0state churches in each country.<\/sup>\u00a0Wales was\u00a0fully incorporated into the Kingdom of England<\/a>,<\/sup> and Ireland was constituted as a kingdom in personal union with the English crown.\u00a0<\/sup>In what was to become Northern Ireland, the lands of the independent Catholic Gaelic nobility were confiscated and\u00a0given to Protestant settlers<\/a> from England and Scotland.<\/p>\n

In 1603, the kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland were united in a\u00a0personal union<\/a>\u00a0when\u00a0James VI, King of Scots<\/a>, inherited the crowns of England and Ireland and moved his court from Edinburgh to London; each country nevertheless remained a separate political entity and retained its separate political, legal, and religious institutions.<\/sup><\/p>\n

In the mid-17th century, all three kingdoms\u00a0were involved in a series of connected wars<\/a>\u00a0(including the\u00a0English Civil War<\/a>) which led to the temporary overthrow of the monarchy, with the\u00a0execution of King Charles I<\/a>, and the establishment of the short-lived\u00a0unitary republic<\/a>\u00a0of the\u00a0Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland<\/a>.<\/sup><\/sup>\u00a0During the 17th and 18th centuries, British sailors were involved in acts of\u00a0piracy<\/a>\u00a0(privateering<\/a>), attacking and stealing from ships off the coast of Europe and the Caribbean.<\/p>\n

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Charles I<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Although the\u00a0monarchy was restored<\/a>, the\u00a0Interregnum<\/a>\u00a0(along with the\u00a0Glorious Revolution<\/a>\u00a0of 1688 and the subsequent\u00a0Bill of Rights 1689<\/a>, and the\u00a0Claim of Right Act 1689<\/a>) ensured that, unlike much of the rest of Europe,\u00a0royal absolutism<\/a>\u00a0would not prevail, and a professed Catholic could never accede to the throne. The\u00a0British constitution<\/a>\u00a0would develop on the basis of\u00a0constitutional monarchy<\/a>\u00a0and the\u00a0parliamentary system<\/a>.<\/sup>\u00a0With the founding of the\u00a0Royal Society<\/a>\u00a0in 1660, science was greatly encouraged. During this period, particularly in England, the development of\u00a0naval power<\/a>\u00a0and the interest in\u00a0voyages of discovery<\/a>\u00a0led to the acquisition and settlement of\u00a0overseas colonies<\/a>, particularly in North America and the Caribbean.<\/p>\n

Though previous attempts at uniting the two kingdoms within Great Britain in 1606, 1667, and 1689 had proved unsuccessful, the attempt initiated in 1705 led to the\u00a0Treaty of Union<\/a>\u00a0of 1706 being agreed and ratified by both parliaments.<\/p>\n

Kingdom of Great Britain<\/span><\/h3>\n
\n

On 1 May 1707, the Kingdom of Great Britain was formed, the result of\u00a0Acts of Union<\/a>\u00a0being passed by the parliaments of England and Scotland to ratify the 1706\u00a0Treaty of Union<\/a> and so unite the two kingdoms.<\/sup><\/p>\n

In the 18th century, cabinet government developed under\u00a0Robert Walpole<\/a>, in practice the first prime minister (1721\u20131742). A series of\u00a0Jacobite Uprisings<\/a>\u00a0sought to remove the Protestant\u00a0House of Hanover<\/a>\u00a0from the British throne and restore the Catholic\u00a0House of Stuart<\/a>. The Jacobites were finally defeated at the\u00a0Battle of Culloden<\/a>\u00a0in 1746, after which the\u00a0Scottish Highlanders<\/a>\u00a0were brutally suppressed. The British colonies in North America that broke away from Britain in the\u00a0American War of Independence<\/a> became the United States of America, recognized by Britain in 1783. British imperial ambition turned towards Asia, particularly to India<\/a>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

\n
\n
\"\"<\/a>
The\u00a0Treaty of Union\u00a0led to a united kingdom encompassing all of Great Britain.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n
\n
Britain played a leading part in the <\/span>Atlantic slave trade<\/a>, mainly between 1662 and 1807 when British or British-colonial\u00a0<\/span>Slave ships<\/a>\u00a0transported nearly 3.3 million slaves from Africa.<\/span><\/sup>\u00a0The slaves were taken to work on\u00a0<\/span>plantations<\/a>\u00a0in British possessions, principally in the\u00a0<\/span>Caribbean<\/a>\u00a0but also\u00a0<\/span>North America<\/a>.<\/sup>\u00a0Slavery coupled with the\u00a0<\/span>Caribbean sugar industry<\/a>\u00a0had a significant role in strengthening and developing the British economy in the 18th century.<\/span><\/sup>\u00a0However, Parliament banned the trade in 1807, banned slavery in the British Empire in 1833, and Britain took a leading role in the movement to abolish slavery worldwide through the\u00a0<\/span>blockade of Africa<\/a> and pressing other nations to end their trade with a series of treaties. The world’s oldest international human rights organization, <\/span>Anti-Slavery International<\/a>, was formed in London in 1839.<\/span><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

From the union with Ireland to the end of the First World War:<\/span><\/h3>\n
The term “United Kingdom” became official in 1801 when the parliaments of Great Britain and Ireland each passed an\u00a0Act of Union<\/a>, uniting the two kingdoms and creating the\u00a0United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland<\/a>.<\/div>\n
<\/div>\n
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Bombardment of Algiers (1816)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

After the defeat of France at the end of the\u00a0French Revolutionary Wars<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0Napoleonic Wars<\/a>\u00a0(1792\u20131815), the United Kingdom emerged as the principal naval and imperial power of the 19th century (with London the largest city in the world from about 1830).<\/sup>\u00a0Unchallenged at sea<\/a>, British dominance was later described as\u00a0Pax Britannica<\/a><\/i>\u00a0(“British Peace”), a period of\u00a0relative peace among the Great Powers<\/a>\u00a0(1815\u20131914) during which the\u00a0British Empire<\/a>\u00a0became the global\u00a0hegemon<\/a>\u00a0and adopted the role of global policeman.<\/sup><\/sup><\/sup><\/sup>\u00a0By the time of\u00a0the Great Exhibition<\/a>\u00a0of 1851, Britain was described as the “workshop of the world”.<\/sup>\u00a0From 1853 to 1856, Britain took part in the\u00a0Crimean War<\/a>, allied with the\u00a0Ottoman Empire<\/a>\u00a0in the fight against the\u00a0Russian Empire<\/a>, <\/sup>participating in the naval battles of the\u00a0Baltic Sea<\/a>\u00a0known as the\u00a0\u00c5land War<\/a>\u00a0in the\u00a0Gulf of Bothnia<\/a>\u00a0and the\u00a0Gulf of Finland<\/a>, among others. The British Empire was expanded to include\u00a0India<\/a>, large\u00a0parts of Africa<\/a>\u00a0and many other territories throughout the world. Alongside the formal control it exerted over its own colonies, British dominance of much of world trade meant that it effectively\u00a0controlled the economies of many regions<\/a>, such as Asia and Latin America. Domestically, political attitudes favored free trade and laissez-faire policies and a gradual widening of the voting franchise. During the century, the population increased at a dramatic rate, accompanied by rapid urbanization, causing significant social and economic stresses.<\/sup>\u00a0To seek new markets and sources of raw materials, the\u00a0Conservative Party<\/a>\u00a0under\u00a0Disraeli<\/a>\u00a0launched a period of imperialist expansion in Egypt, South Africa, and elsewhere. Canada, Australia and New Zealand became self-governing dominions.<\/sup>\u00a0After the turn of the century, Britain’s industrial dominance was challenged by Germany and the United States.<\/sup>\u00a0Social reform and home rule for Ireland were important domestic issues after 1900. The\u00a0Labour Party<\/a>\u00a0emerged from an alliance of trade unions and small socialist groups in 1900, and\u00a0suffragettes<\/a> campaigned from before 1914 for women’s right to vote.<\/p>\n

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\"Black-and-white<\/a>
Infantry of the Royal Irish Rifles during the Battle of the Somme.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

Britain fought alongside France, Russia and (after 1917) the United States, against Germany and its allies in the\u00a0First World War<\/a>\u00a0(1914\u20131918).<\/sup>\u00a0British armed forces were engaged across much of the British Empire and in several regions of Europe, particularly on the\u00a0Western front<\/a>.<\/sup>\u00a0The high fatalities of trench warfare caused the loss of much of a generation of men, with lasting social effects in the nation and a great disruption in the social order.<\/p>\n

After the war, Britain received the\u00a0League of Nations<\/a>\u00a0mandate over a number of former German and\u00a0Ottoman<\/a>\u00a0colonies. The British Empire reached its greatest extent, covering a fifth of the world’s land surface and a quarter of its population.<\/sup> Britain had suffered 2.5 million casualties and finished the war with a huge national debt.<\/p>\n

Interwar years and the Second World War:<\/span><\/h3>\n
<\/div>\n

By the mid 1920s most of the British population could listen to\u00a0BBC<\/a> radio programs.\u00a0Experimental television broadcasts\u00a0began in 1929<\/a>\u00a0and the\u00a0first scheduled BBC Television Service<\/a> commenced in 1936.<\/p>\n

The rise of\u00a0Irish nationalism<\/a>, and disputes within Ireland over the terms of\u00a0Irish Home Rule<\/a>, led eventually to the\u00a0partition of the island<\/a>\u00a0in 1921.<\/sup>\u00a0The\u00a0Irish Free State<\/a>\u00a0became independent, initially with\u00a0Dominion<\/a>\u00a0status in 1922, and\u00a0unambiguously independent in 1931<\/a>. Northern Ireland remained part of the United Kingdom.<\/sup>\u00a0The\u00a01928 Act<\/a>\u00a0widened\u00a0suffrage<\/a>\u00a0by giving women electoral equality with men. A wave of strikes in the mid-1920s culminated in the\u00a0General Strike of 1926<\/a>. Britain had still not recovered from the effects of the war when the\u00a0Great Depression<\/a> (1929\u20131932) occurred. This led to considerable unemployment and hardship in the old industrial areas, as well as political and social unrest in the 1930s, with rising membership in communist and socialist parties. A coalition government was formed in 1931.<\/p>\n

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Winston Churchill<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Nonetheless, “Britain was a very wealthy country, formidable in arms, ruthless in pursuit of its interests and sitting at the heart of a global production system.”<\/sup>\u00a0After\u00a0Nazi Germany<\/a>\u00a0invaded Poland, Britain entered the\u00a0Second World War<\/a>\u00a0by declaring war on Germany in 1939.\u00a0Winston Churchill<\/a> became prime minister and head of a coalition government in 1940. Despite the defeat of its European allies in the first year of the war, Britain and its Empire continued the fight alone against Germany. Churchill engaged industry, scientists, and engineers to advise and support the government and the military in the prosecution of the war effort. In 1940, the\u00a0Royal Air Force<\/a>\u00a0defeated the German\u00a0Luftwaffe<\/a>\u00a0in a struggle for control of the skies in the\u00a0Battle of Britain<\/a>. Urban areas suffered heavy bombing during\u00a0the Blitz<\/a>. The\u00a0Grand Alliance<\/a>\u00a0of Britain, the United States and the Soviet Union formed in 1941 leading the\u00a0Allies<\/a>\u00a0against the\u00a0Axis powers<\/a>. There were eventual hard-fought victories in the\u00a0Battle of the Atlantic<\/a>, the\u00a0North Africa campaign<\/a>\u00a0and the\u00a0Italian campaign<\/a>. British forces played an important role in the\u00a0Normandy landings<\/a>\u00a0of 1944 and the\u00a0liberation of Europe<\/a>, achieved with its allies the United States, the Soviet Union and other Allied countries. The British Army led the\u00a0Burma campaign<\/a>\u00a0against Japan and the\u00a0British Pacific Fleet<\/a>\u00a0fought Japan at sea. British scientists\u00a0contributed to the Manhattan Project<\/a>\u00a0which led to the\u00a0surrender of Japan<\/a>.<\/p>\n

Postwar 20th century:<\/span><\/h3>\n
<\/div>\n
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\"Map<\/a>
Map showing territories that were at one time part of the\u00a0British Empire<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n
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During the Second World War, the UK was one of the <\/span>Big Three<\/a> powers (along with the U.S. and the Soviet Union) who met to plan the post-war world;<\/span>\u00a0it was an original signatory to the\u00a0<\/span>Declaration by United Nations<\/a>. After the war, the UK became one of the five permanent members of the\u00a0<\/span>United Nations Security Council<\/a>\u00a0and worked closely with the United States to establish the\u00a0<\/span>IMF<\/a>,\u00a0<\/span>World Bank<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0<\/span>NATO<\/a>.<\/span><\/sup><\/sup>\u00a0The war left the UK severely weakened and financially dependent on the\u00a0<\/span>Marshall Plan<\/a>,<\/span><\/sup> but it was spared the total war that devastated eastern Europe.<\/span>\u00a0In the immediate post-war years, the\u00a0<\/span>Labour government<\/a> initiated a radical program of reforms, which had a significant effect on British society in the following decades.<\/span><\/sup>\u00a0Major industries and public utilities were\u00a0<\/span>nationalized<\/a>, a\u00a0<\/span>welfare state<\/a>\u00a0was established, and a comprehensive, publicly funded healthcare system, the\u00a0<\/span>National Health Service<\/a>, was created.<\/span>\u00a0The rise of nationalism in the colonies coincided with Britain’s now much-diminished economic position, so that a policy of\u00a0<\/span>decolonization<\/a> was unavoidable. Independence was granted to India and Pakistan in 1947.<\/span>\u00a0Over the next three decades, most colonies of the British Empire gained their independence, with all those that sought independence supported by the UK, during both the transition period and afterwards. Many became members of the\u00a0<\/span>Commonwealth of Nations<\/a>.<\/span><\/div>\n
<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

The UK was the third country to develop\u00a0a nuclear weapons arsenal<\/a>\u00a0(with its first atomic bomb test,\u00a0Operation Hurricane<\/a>, in 1952), but the new post-war limits of Britain’s international role were illustrated by the\u00a0Suez Crisis<\/a>\u00a0of 1956. The\u00a0international spread of the English language<\/a>\u00a0ensured the continuing international influence of its\u00a0literature<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0culture<\/a>.\u00a0As a result of a shortage of workers in the 1950s, the government encouraged immigration from\u00a0Commonwealth countries<\/a>. In the following decades, the UK became a more multi-ethnic society than before. Despite rising living standards in the late 1950s and 1960s, the UK’s economic performance was less successful than many of its main competitors such as France,\u00a0West Germany<\/a>\u00a0and Japan.<\/p>\n

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Leaders of member states of the European Union in 2007<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n
<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

In the decades-long process of\u00a0European integration<\/a>, the UK was a founding member of the alliance called the\u00a0Western European Union<\/a>, established with the\u00a0London and Paris Conferences<\/a>\u00a0in 1954. In 1960 the UK was one of the seven founding members of the\u00a0European Free Trade Association<\/a>\u00a0(EFTA), but in 1973 it left to join the\u00a0European Communities<\/a>\u00a0(EC). When the EC became the\u00a0European Union<\/a>\u00a0(EU) in 1992, the UK was one of the 12 founding member states. The\u00a0Treaty of Lisbon<\/a>, signed in 2007, forms the constitutional basis of the European Union since then.<\/p>\n

From the late 1960s, Northern Ireland suffered communal and paramilitary violence (sometimes affecting other parts of the UK) conventionally known as\u00a0the Troubles<\/a>. It is usually considered to have ended with the\u00a0Belfast “Good Friday” Agreement<\/a> of 1998.<\/sup><\/p>\n

Following a period of widespread economic slowdown and industrial strife in the 1970s, the Conservative government of the 1980s under\u00a0Margaret Thatcher<\/a>\u00a0initiated a radical policy of\u00a0monetarism<\/a>, deregulation, particularly of the financial sector (for example, the\u00a0Big Bang<\/a> in 1986) and labor markets, the sale of state-owned companies (privatization), and the withdrawal of subsidies to others.\u00a0From 1984, the economy was helped by the inflow of substantial\u00a0North Sea oil<\/a> revenues.<\/p>\n

Around the end of the 20th century, there were major changes to the governance of the UK with the establishment of\u00a0devolved<\/a>\u00a0administrations for Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.<\/sup>\u00a0The\u00a0statutory incorporation<\/a>\u00a0followed acceptance of the\u00a0European Convention on Human Rights<\/a>. The UK is still a key global player diplomatically and militarily. It plays leading roles in the UN and\u00a0NATO<\/a>. Controversy surrounds some of Britain’s overseas military deployments, particularly in\u00a0Afghanistan<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0Iraq<\/a>.<\/p>\n

21st century:<\/span><\/h3>\n

The\u00a02008 global financial crisis<\/a>\u00a0severely affected the UK economy. The\u00a0Cameron\u2013Clegg coalition<\/a>\u00a0government of 2010 introduced austerity measures intended to tackle the substantial public deficits which resulted.<\/sup>\u00a0In 2014 the\u00a0Scottish Government<\/a>\u00a0held a\u00a0referendum on Scottish independence<\/a>, with 55.3 per cent of voters rejecting the independence proposal and opting to remain within the United Kingdom.<\/p>\n

In 2016, 51.9 per cent of voters in the United Kingdom\u00a0voted to leave the European Union<\/a>.<\/sup> The UK remained a full member of the EU until 31 January 2020.<\/p>\n

Geography:<\/span><\/h2>\n
\n
\n
\"\"<\/a>
Topographic Map of the United Kingdom<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

The total area of the United Kingdom is approximately 244,820 square kilometers (94,530 sq mi). The country occupies the major part of the\u00a0British Isles<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0archipelago and includes the island of Great Britain, the north-eastern one-sixth of the island of Ireland and some smaller surrounding islands. It lies between the North Atlantic Ocean and the North Sea with the southeast coast coming within 22 miles (35\u00a0km) of the coast of northern France, from which it is separated by the\u00a0English Channel<\/a>.<\/sup> In 1993 10 per cent of the UK was forested, 46 per cent used for pastures and 25 per cent cultivated for agriculture. The\u00a0Royal Greenwich Observatory<\/a>\u00a0in London was chosen as the defining point of the\u00a0Prime Meridian<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0in\u00a0Washington, DC, in 1884<\/a>, although due to more accurate modern measurement the meridian actually lies 100 meters to the east of the observatory.<\/p>\n

Northern Ireland shares a 224-mile (360 km) land boundary with the Republic of Ireland.<\/sup>\u00a0The coastline of Great Britain is 11,073 miles (17,820\u00a0km) long.<\/sup>\u00a0It is connected to continental Europe by the\u00a0Channel Tunnel<\/a>, which at 31 miles (50 km) (24 miles (38 km) underwater) is the longest underwater tunnel in the world.<\/p>\n

England<\/a> accounts for just over half (53 per cent) of the total area of the UK, covering 130,395 square kilometers (50,350\u00a0sq\u00a0mi).<\/sup>\u00a0Most of the country consists of lowland terrain,<\/sup>\u00a0with more upland and some mountainous terrain northwest of the\u00a0Tees-Exe line<\/a>; including the\u00a0Lake District<\/a>, the\u00a0Pennines<\/a>,\u00a0Exmoor<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0Dartmoor<\/a>. The main rivers and estuaries are the\u00a0Thames<\/a>,\u00a0Severn<\/a>\u00a0and the\u00a0Humber<\/a>. England’s highest mountain is\u00a0Scafell Pike<\/a>\u00a0(978 metres (3,209\u00a0ft)) in the\u00a0Lake District<\/a>.<\/p>\n

\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\"\"<\/a>
The\u00a0Skiddaw massif, town of\u00a0Keswick\u00a0and\u00a0Derwent Water\u00a0in\u00a0Lakeland<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n
Scotland<\/a> accounts for just under one-third (32 per cent) of the total area of the UK, covering 78,772 square kilometers (30,410\u00a0sq\u00a0mi).<\/sup>\u00a0This includes nearly 800\u00a0islands<\/a>,<\/sup>\u00a0predominantly west and north of the mainland; notably the\u00a0Hebrides<\/a>,\u00a0Orkney Islands<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0Shetland Islands<\/a>. Scotland is the most mountainous country in the UK and its topography is distinguished by the\u00a0Highland Boundary Fault<\/a>\u00a0\u2013 a\u00a0geological rock fracture<\/a>\u00a0\u2013 which traverses Scotland from\u00a0Arran<\/a>\u00a0in the west to\u00a0Stonehaven<\/a>\u00a0in the east.<\/sup>\u00a0The\u00a0fault<\/a>\u00a0separates two distinctively different regions; namely the\u00a0Highlands<\/a>\u00a0to the north and west and the\u00a0Lowlands<\/a>\u00a0to the south and east. The more rugged Highland region contains the majority of Scotland’s mountainous land, including\u00a0Ben Nevis<\/a>\u00a0which at 1,345 metres (4,413\u00a0ft)<\/sup>\u00a0is the highest point in the British Isles.<\/sup>\u00a0Lowland areas \u2013 especially the narrow waist of land between the\u00a0Firth of Clyde<\/a>\u00a0and the\u00a0Firth of Forth<\/a>\u00a0known as the\u00a0Central Belt<\/a>\u00a0\u2013 are flatter and home to most of the population including\u00a0Glasgow<\/a>, Scotland’s largest city, and\u00a0Edinburgh<\/a>, its capital and political center, although upland and mountainous terrain lies within the Southern Uplands<\/a>.<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n
\n
\n
\n
\"\"<\/a>
Skye\u00a0is one of the major islands in the\u00a0Inner Hebrides\u00a0and part of the\u00a0Scottish Highlands.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n
<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

 <\/p>\n

Wales<\/a> accounts for less than one-tenth (9 per cent) of the total area of the UK, covering 20,779 square kilometers (8,020\u00a0sq\u00a0mi).<\/sup>\u00a0Wales is mostly mountainous, though\u00a0South Wales<\/a>\u00a0is less mountainous than\u00a0North<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0mid Wales<\/a>. The main population and industrial areas are in South Wales, consisting of the coastal cities of\u00a0Cardiff<\/a>,\u00a0Swansea<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0Newport<\/a>, and the\u00a0South Wales Valleys<\/a>\u00a0to their north. The highest mountains in Wales are in\u00a0Snowdonia<\/a>\u00a0and include\u00a0Snowdon<\/a> which, at 1,085 meters (3,560 ft), is the highest peak in Wales.<\/sup> Wales has over 2,704 kilometers (1,680 miles) of coastline. <\/sup>Several islands lie off the Welsh mainland, the largest of which is\u00a0Anglesey<\/a> in the north-west.<\/p>\n

Northern Ireland<\/a>, separated from Great Britain by the\u00a0Irish Sea<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0North Channel<\/a>, has an area of 14,160 square kilometers (5,470 sq mi) and is mostly hilly. It includes\u00a0Lough Neagh<\/a> which, at 388 square kilometers (150\u00a0sq\u00a0mi), is the largest lake in the British Isles by area.<\/sup>\u00a0The highest peak in Northern Ireland is\u00a0Slieve Donard<\/a>\u00a0in the\u00a0Mourne Mountains<\/a>\u00a0at 852 metres (2,795\u00a0ft).<\/p>\n

Economy:<\/h2>\n

\"\"<\/a><\/h3>\n
\n
The Bank of England \u2013 the central bank of the United Kingdom<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

The UK has a partially regulated\u00a0market economy<\/a>. Based on market\u00a0exchange rates<\/a>, the UK is today the fifth-largest economy in the world and the second-largest in Europe after\u00a0Germany<\/a>.\u00a0HM Treasury<\/a>, led by the\u00a0Chancellor of the Exchequer<\/a>, is responsible for developing and executing the government’s\u00a0public finance<\/a>\u00a0policy and\u00a0economic policy<\/a>. The\u00a0Bank of England<\/a>\u00a0is the UK’s\u00a0central bank<\/a>\u00a0and is responsible for issuing notes and coins in the nation’s currency, the\u00a0pound sterling<\/a>. Banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland retain the right to issue their own notes, subject to retaining enough Bank of England notes in reserve to cover their issue. The pound sterling is the world’s third-largest\u00a0reserve currency<\/a>\u00a0(after the US dollar and the euro).<\/sup>\u00a0Since 1997 the Bank of England’s\u00a0Monetary Policy Committee<\/a>, headed by the\u00a0Governor of the Bank of England<\/a>, has been responsible for setting\u00a0interest rates<\/a> at the level necessary to achieve the overall inflation target for the economy that is set by the Chancellor each year.<\/p>\n

The UK\u00a0service sector<\/a>\u00a0makes up around 79 per cent of\u00a0GDP<\/a>.\u00a0London<\/a> is one of the world’s largest financial centers, ranking 2nd in the world, behind\u00a0New York City<\/a>, in the\u00a0Global Financial Centres Index<\/a>\u00a0in 2020.<\/sup>\u00a0London also has the\u00a0largest city GDP<\/a>\u00a0in Europe.<\/sup>\u00a0Edinburgh ranks 17th in the world, and 6th in Western Europe in the Global Financial Centres Index in 2020. <\/sup>Tourism<\/a> is very important to the British economy; with over 27\u00a0million tourists arriving in 2004, the United Kingdom is ranked as the sixth major tourist destination in the world and London has the most international visitors of any city in the world.\u00a0The\u00a0creative industries<\/a> accounted for 7 per cent GVA in 2005 and grew at an average of 6 per cent per annum between 1997 and 2005.<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/a>
United Kingdom Exports Treemap 2017<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Following the United Kingdom’s withdrawal from the European Union, the functioning of the UK internal economic market is enshrined by the\u00a0United Kingdom Internal Market Act 2020<\/a>\u00a0which ensures trade in goods and services continues without internal barriers across the four countries of the United Kingdom.<\/sup><\/sup><\/p>\n

The\u00a0Industrial Revolution<\/a> started in the UK with an initial concentration on the textile industry, followed by other heavy industries such as\u00a0shipbuilding<\/a>, coal mining and\u00a0steelmaking<\/a>.<\/sup> British merchants, shippers and bankers developed overwhelming advantage over those of other nations allowing the UK to dominate international trade in the 19th century. As other nations industrialized, coupled with economic decline after two world wars, the United Kingdom began to lose its competitive advantage and heavy industry declined, by degrees, throughout the 20th century. Manufacturing remains a significant part of the economy but accounted for only 16.7 per cent of national output in 2003.<\/p>\n

\n
\n
\"\"<\/a>
Jaguar cars are designed, developed and manufactured in the UK<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

The\u00a0automotive industry<\/a> employs around 800,000 people, with a turnover in 2015 of \u00a370 billion, generating \u00a334.6 billion of exports (11.8 per cent of the UK’s total export goods). In 2015, the UK produced around 1.6 million passenger vehicles and 94,500 commercial vehicles. The UK is a major center for engine manufacturing: in 2015 around 2.4 million engines were produced. The UK\u00a0motorsport<\/a> industry employs around 41,000 people, comprises around 4,500 companies and has an annual turnover of around \u00a36 billion.<\/p>\n

The\u00a0aerospace industry of the UK<\/a> is the second- or third-largest national aerospace industry in the world depending upon the method of measurement and has an annual turnover of around \u00a330 billion.<\/p>\n

\n
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\"\"<\/a>
Engines and wings for the\u00a0Airbus A380\u00a0are manufactured in the UK.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n
\n
BAE Systems<\/a>\u00a0plays a critical role in some of the world’s biggest defense\u00a0aerospace projects. In the UK, the company makes large sections of the\u00a0Typhoon Eurofighter<\/a>\u00a0and assembles the aircraft for the\u00a0<\/span>Royal Air Force<\/a>. It is also a principal subcontractor on the\u00a0<\/span>F35<\/a>\u00a0Joint Strike Fighter \u2013 the world’s largest single defense\u00a0project \u2013 for which it designs and manufactures a range of components. It also manufactures the\u00a0Hawk<\/a>, the world’s most successful jet training aircraft.<\/span>\u00a0<\/span>Airbus UK<\/a>\u00a0also manufactures the wings for the\u00a0<\/span>A400\u00a0m<\/a>\u00a0military transporter. Rolls-Royce is the world’s second-largest aero-engine manufacturer. Its engines power more than 30 types of\u00a0<\/span>commercial aircraft<\/a>\u00a0and it has more than 30,000 engines in service in the civil and defense sectors.<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

The UK space industry was worth \u00a39.1bn in 2011 and employed 29,000 people. It is growing at a rate of 7.5 per cent annually, according to its umbrella organization, the UK Space Agency<\/a>. In 2013, the British Government pledged \u00a360\u00a0m to the\u00a0Skylon<\/a>\u00a0project: this investment will provide support at a “crucial stage” to allow a full-scale prototype of the\u00a0SABRE<\/a>\u00a0engine to be built.<\/p>\n

The\u00a0pharmaceutical industry<\/a> plays an important role in the UK economy and the country has the third-highest share of global pharmaceutical R&D expenditures.<\/sup><\/p>\n

Agriculture is intensive, highly mechanized and efficient by European standards, producing about 60 per cent of food needs with less than 1.6 per cent of the labor force (535,000 workers). <\/sup>Around two-thirds of production is devoted to livestock, one-third to arable crops. The UK retains a significant, though much reduced fishing industry. It is also rich in a number of natural resources including coal, petroleum, natural gas, tin, limestone, iron ore, salt, clay, chalk, gypsum, lead, silica and an abundance of arable land.<\/p>\n

\n
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The\u00a0City of London<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n
\n
In the final quarter of 2008, the UK economy officially entered <\/span>recession<\/a>\u00a0for the first time since 1991.<\/span><\/sup>\u00a0Following the likes of the United States, France and many major economies, in 2013, the UK lost its top AAA credit rating for the first time since 1978 with\u00a0<\/span>Moodys<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0<\/span>Fitch<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>credit agency<\/a>, but, unlike the other major economies, retained its triple A rating with\u00a0<\/span>Standard & Poor’s<\/a>.<\/span><\/sup><\/sup> By the end of 2014, UK growth was the fastest in both the G7 and in Europe,<\/span> and by September 2015, the unemployment rate was down to a seven-year low of 5.3 per cent.<\/span> In 2020, coronavirus lockdown measures caused the UK economy to suffer its biggest slump on record, shrinking by 20.4 per cent between April and June compared to the first three months of the year, to push it officially into recession for the first time in 11 years.<\/span><\/div>\n
<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

The UK has an external debt<\/a>\u00a0of $9.6\u00a0trillion<\/a>\u00a0dollars, which is the second-highest in the world after the US. As a percentage of GDP, external debt is 408 per cent, which is the third-highest in the world after Luxembourg and Iceland.<\/p>\n

Transportation:<\/h2>\n

A radial road network totals 29,145 miles (46,904 km) of main roads, 2,173 miles (3,497 km) of motorways and 213,750 miles (344,000 km) of paved roads. The\u00a0M25<\/a>, encircling London, is the largest and busiest bypass in the world. In 2009 there were a total of 34\u00a0million licensed vehicles in Great Britain.<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/a>
Road Map of the United Kingdom<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

The rail network in the UK is the oldest such network in the world. The system consists of five high-speed main lines (the\u00a0West Coast<\/a>,\u00a0East Coast<\/a>,\u00a0Midland<\/a>,\u00a0Great Western<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0Great Eastern<\/a>), which radiate from London to the rest of the country, augmented by regional rail lines and dense commuter networks within the major cities.\u00a0High Speed 1<\/a>\u00a0is operationally separate from the rest of the network. The world’s first passenger railway running on steam was the\u00a0Stockton and Darlington Railway<\/a>, opened on 27 September 1825. Just under five years later the world’s first intercity railway was the\u00a0Liverpool and Manchester Railway<\/a>, designed by\u00a0George Stephenson<\/a>\u00a0and opened by the Prime Minister, the\u00a0Duke of Wellington<\/a>\u00a0on 15 September 1830. The network grew rapidly as a patchwork of literally hundreds of separate companies during the\u00a0Victorian era<\/a>.<\/sup><\/p>\n

The UK has a railway network of 10,072 miles (16,209\u00a0km) in\u00a0Great Britain<\/a>\u00a0and 189 miles (304\u00a0km) in\u00a0Northern Ireland<\/a>. Railways in Northern Ireland are operated by\u00a0NI Railways<\/a>, a subsidiary of state-owned\u00a0Translink<\/a>. In Great Britain, the\u00a0British Rail<\/a>\u00a0network was\u00a0privatized<\/a>\u00a0between 1994 and 1997, which was followed by a rapid rise in passenger numbers. The UK was ranked eighth among national European rail systems in the 2017 European Railway Performance Index assessing intensity of use, quality of service and safety.<\/sup>\u00a0Network Rail<\/a>\u00a0owns and manages most of the fixed assets (tracks, signals etc.).\u00a0HS2<\/a>, a new high-speed railway line, is estimated to cost \u00a356 billion.\u00a0Crossrail<\/a>, under construction in London, is Europe’s largest construction project with a \u00a315 billion projected cost.<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/a>
Railway Map of the United Kingdom<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

In the year from October 2009 to September 2010 UK airports handled a total of 211.4 million passengers.\u00a0In that period the three largest airports were\u00a0London Heathrow Airport<\/a>\u00a0(65.6\u00a0million passengers),\u00a0Gatwick Airport<\/a>\u00a0(31.5\u00a0million passengers) and\u00a0London Stansted Airport<\/a> (18.9 million passengers). London Heathrow Airport, located 15 miles (24 km) west of the capital, has the most international passenger traffic of any airport in the world\u00a0and is the hub for the UK flag carrier\u00a0British Airways<\/a>, as well as\u00a0Virgin Atlantic<\/a>.<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/a>
Heathrow Airport 2009<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Flag of the United Kingdom:<\/h2>\n

The\u00a0national flag of the United Kingdom\u00a0is the\u00a0Union Jack<\/a>, also known as the Union Flag.<\/p>\n

The design of the Union Jack dates back to the\u00a0Act of Union 1801<\/a>\u00a0which united the\u00a0Kingdom of Great Britain<\/a>\u00a0and the\u00a0Kingdom of Ireland<\/a>\u00a0(previously in\u00a0personal union<\/a>) to create the\u00a0United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland<\/a>. The flag consists of the\u00a0red cross<\/a>\u00a0of\u00a0Saint George<\/a>\u00a0(patron saint<\/a>\u00a0of\u00a0England<\/a>), edged in white, superimposed on the\u00a0Cross of<\/a>\u00a0St Patrick<\/a>\u00a0(patron saint of\u00a0Ireland<\/a>), which are superimposed on the\u00a0Saltire<\/a>\u00a0of\u00a0Saint Andrew<\/a>\u00a0(patron saint of\u00a0Scotland<\/a>).\u00a0Wales<\/a>\u00a0is not represented in the Union Flag by Wales’s patron saint,\u00a0Saint David<\/a>, because the flag was designed while Wales was part of the\u00a0Kingdom of England<\/a>.<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/a>
Flag of the United Kingdom<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

The earlier\u00a0flag of Great Britain<\/a>\u00a0was established in 1606 by a\u00a0proclamation<\/a>\u00a0of\u00a0King James VI and I<\/a>\u00a0of\u00a0Scotland<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0England<\/a>.<\/sup>\u00a0The new flag of the United Kingdom was officially created by an\u00a0Order in Council<\/a>\u00a0of 1801, reading as follows:<\/p>\n

“The Union Flag shall be azure<\/a>, the Crosses\u00a0saltire<\/a>\u00a0of Saint Andrew and Saint Patrick quarterly per saltire, counter-changed,\u00a0argent<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0gules<\/a>, the latter\u00a0fimbriated<\/a>\u00a0of the\u00a0second<\/a>, surmounted by the Cross of Saint George of the\u00a0third<\/a> fimbriated as the saltire.”<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

The design of the Union Jack dates back to the Act of Union 1801 which united the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Ireland (previously in personal union) to create the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The flag consists of the red cross of Saint George (patron saint of England), edged in white, superimposed on the Cross of St Patrick (patron saint of Ireland), which are superimposed on the Saltire of Saint Andrew (patron saint of Scotland). Wales is not represented in the Union Flag by Wales’s patron saint, Saint David, because the flag was designed while Wales was part of the Kingdom of England.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":9589,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"site-sidebar-layout":"default","site-content-layout":"default","ast-site-content-layout":"","site-content-style":"default","site-sidebar-style":"default","ast-global-header-display":"","ast-banner-title-visibility":"","ast-main-header-display":"","ast-hfb-above-header-display":"","ast-hfb-below-header-display":"","ast-hfb-mobile-header-display":"","site-post-title":"","ast-breadcrumbs-content":"","ast-featured-img":"","footer-sml-layout":"","theme-transparent-header-meta":"default","adv-header-id-meta":"","stick-header-meta":"default","header-above-stick-meta":"","header-main-stick-meta":"","header-below-stick-meta":"","astra-migrate-meta-layouts":"default","ast-page-background-enabled":"default","ast-page-background-meta":{"desktop":{"background-color":"","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-gradient":""},"tablet":{"background-color":"","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-gradient":""},"mobile":{"background-color":"","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-gradient":""}},"ast-content-background-meta":{"desktop":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-5)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-gradient":""},"tablet":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-5)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-gradient":""},"mobile":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-5)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-gradient":""}},"footnotes":""},"categories":[4],"tags":[66,59,26,5,6,7,29,60],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/9143"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=9143"}],"version-history":[{"count":1,"href":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/9143\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":9590,"href":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/9143\/revisions\/9590"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/9589"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=9143"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=9143"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=9143"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}