{"id":9189,"date":"2022-06-08T04:00:17","date_gmt":"2022-06-08T11:00:17","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/?p=9189"},"modified":"2022-06-08T07:39:03","modified_gmt":"2022-06-08T14:39:03","slug":"vanuatu","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/vanuatu\/","title":{"rendered":"Vanuatu"},"content":{"rendered":"

Introduction:<\/h2>\n

Vanuatu, officially the\u00a0Republic of Vanuatu, is an\u00a0island country<\/a>\u00a0located in the South Pacific Ocean. The\u00a0archipelago<\/a>, which is of volcanic origin, is 1,750 kilometers (1,090 mi) east of northern Australia, 540 kilometers (340 mi) northeast of New Caledonia<\/a>, east of\u00a0New Guinea<\/a>, southeast of the\u00a0Solomon Islands<\/a>, and west of\u00a0Fiji<\/a>.<\/p>\n

Vanuatu was first inhabited by\u00a0Melanesian<\/a>\u00a0people. The first Europeans to visit the islands were a Spanish expedition led by Portuguese navigator\u00a0Fernandes de Queir\u00f3s<\/a>, who arrived on the largest island,\u00a0Esp\u00edritu Santo<\/a>, in 1606. Queir\u00f3s claimed the archipelago for Spain, as part of the colonial\u00a0Spanish East Indies<\/a>, and named it\u00a0La Austrialia del Esp\u00edritu Santo<\/i>.\"\"<\/a><\/p>\n

In the 1880s, France and the\u00a0United Kingdom<\/a>\u00a0claimed parts of the archipelago, and in 1906, they agreed on a framework for jointly managing the archipelago as the\u00a0New Hebrides<\/a>\u00a0through an Anglo-French\u00a0condominium<\/a>.<\/p>\n

An independence movement arose in the 1970s, and the Republic of Vanuatu was founded in 1980. Since independence, the country has become a member of the United Nations,\u00a0Commonwealth of Nations<\/a>,\u00a0Organisation internationale de la Francophonie<\/a>\u00a0and the\u00a0Pacific Islands Forum<\/a>.<\/p>\n

History:<\/h2>\n

Prehistory:<\/span><\/h3>\n

The history of Vanuatu before European colonization is mostly obscure because of the lack of written sources up to that point, and because only limited archaeological work has been conducted; Vanuatu’s volatile geology and climate is also likely to have destroyed or hidden many prehistoric sites.<\/sup> However, archaeological evidence gathered since the 1980s supports the theory that the Vanuatuan islands were first settled about 3,000 years ago, in the period roughly between 1,100 BC and 700 BC.\u00a0These were almost certainly people of the\u00a0Lapita culture<\/a>. The formerly widespread idea that Vanuatu might have been only marginally affected by this culture was rendered obsolete by the evidence uncovered in recent decades at numerous sites on most of the islands in the archipelago, ranging from the\u00a0Banks Islands<\/a>\u00a0in the north to\u00a0Aneityum<\/a> in the south.<\/p>\n

Notable Lapita sites include\u00a0Teouma<\/a>\u00a0on\u00a0\u00c9fat\u00e9<\/a>,\u00a0Uripiv<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0Vao<\/a>\u00a0off the coast of\u00a0Malakula<\/a>, and Makue on\u00a0Aore<\/a>. Several ancient burial sites have been excavated, most notably Teouma on \u00c9fat\u00e9, which has a large ancient cemetery containing the remains of 94 individuals.<\/sup>\u00a0There are also sites \u2013 on \u00c9fate and on the adjacent islands of\u00a0Lelepa<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0Eretoka<\/a>\u00a0\u2013 associated with the 16th\u201317th century chief or chiefs called\u00a0Roy Mata<\/a>. (This may be a title held by different men over several generations.) Roy Mata is said to have united local clans and instituted and presided over an era of peace.<\/sup><\/p>\n

The stories about Roy Mata come from local oral tradition, and are consistent with centuries-old evidence uncovered at archaeological sites.<\/sup>\u00a0The Lapita sites became Vanuatu’s first UNESCO\u00a0World Heritage Site<\/a> in 2008.<\/sup><\/p>\n

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Cave paintings,\u00a0Lelepa Island\u00a0associated with the\u00a0Roy Mata\u00a0World Heritage Site<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n
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The immediate origins of the Lapita lay to the northwest, in the <\/span>Solomon Islands<\/a>\u00a0and the\u00a0<\/span>Bismark Archipelago<\/a>\u00a0of\u00a0<\/span>Papua New Guinea<\/a>,<\/span><\/sup>\u00a0though DNA studies of a 3,000-year-old skeleton found near\u00a0<\/span>Port Vila<\/a>\u00a0in 2016 indicates that some may have arrived directly from the\u00a0<\/span>Philippines<\/a>\u00a0and\/or\u00a0<\/span>Taiwan<\/a>, pausing only briefly en route.<\/span><\/sup>\u00a0They brought with them crops such as\u00a0<\/span>yam<\/a>,\u00a0<\/span>taro<\/a>\u00a0and banana, as well as domesticated animals such as pigs and chickens.<\/span><\/sup>\u00a0Their arrival is coincident with the extinction of several species, such as the\u00a0<\/span>land crocodile<\/a>\u00a0(<\/span>Mekosuchus kalpokasi<\/i>),\u00a0<\/span>land tortoise<\/a>\u00a0(<\/span>Meiolania damelipi<\/i>) and various flightless bird species.<\/span><\/sup>\u00a0Lapita settlements reached as far east as\u00a0<\/span>Tonga<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0<\/span>Samoa<\/a>\u00a0at their greatest extent.<\/span><\/sup><\/div>\n
<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

Over time, the Lapita culture lost much of its early unity; as such, it became increasingly fragmented. The precise reasons for this are unclear. However, over the centuries pottery, settlement and burial practices in Vanuatu all evolved in a more localized direction, with long-distance trade and migration patterns contracting.<\/sup>\u00a0However some limited long-distance trade did continue, with similar cultural practices and late-period items also being found in\u00a0Fiji<\/a>,\u00a0New Caledonia<\/a>, the Bismarks and the Solomons.<\/sup>\u00a0Finds in central and southern Vanuatu, such as distinctive adzes, also indicate some trade connections with, and possibly population movements of, Polynesian peoples to the east.<\/sup><\/sup><\/p>\n

Over time it is thought that the Lapita either mixed with, or acted as pioneers for, migrants coming from the Bismarks and elsewhere in Melanesia, ultimately producing the darker-skinned physiognomy that is typical of modern ni-Vanuatu.\u00a0Linguistically, however, the Lapita peoples’ Austronesian languages were maintained, with all of the numerous 100+ autochthonous\u00a0languages of Vanuatu<\/a>\u00a0being classified as belonging to the\u00a0Oceanic<\/a>\u00a0branch of the\u00a0Austronesian language family<\/a>.<\/p>\n

This linguistic hyper-diversity resulted from a number of factors: continuing waves of migration, the existence of numerous decentralized and generally self-sufficient communities, hostilities between people groups, with none able to dominate any of the others, and the difficult geography of Vanuatu that impeded inter- and intra-island travel and communication. The geological record also shows that a huge volcanic eruption occurred on\u00a0Ambrym<\/a>\u00a0in circa 200 AD and on\u00a0Kuwae<\/a> in c. 1452\u201353 AD, which would have devastated local populations and likely resulted in further population movements.<\/sup><\/p>\n

<\/span>Arrival of Europeans (1606\u20131906):<\/span><\/h3>\n
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Pedro Fernandes de Queir\u00f3s<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n
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The Vanuatu islands first had contact with Europeans in April 1606, when the <\/span>Portuguese<\/a>\u00a0explorer\u00a0<\/span>Pedro Fernandes de Queir\u00f3s<\/a>, sailing for the\u00a0<\/span>Spanish Crown<\/a>, departed\u00a0<\/span>El Callao<\/a>,<\/span><\/sup>\u00a0sailed by the\u00a0<\/span>Banks Islands<\/a>, landing briefly on\u00a0<\/span>Gaua<\/a> (which he called Santa Mar\u00eda).<\/span>\u00a0Continuing further south, Queir\u00f3s arrived at the largest island, naming it\u00a0<\/span>La Austrialia del\u00a0Esp\u00edritu Santo<\/a><\/i>\u00a0or “The Southern Land of the Holy Spirit”, believing he had arrived in\u00a0<\/span>Terra Australis<\/a> (Australia).<\/span>\u00a0The Spanish established a short-lived settlement named\u00a0<\/span>Nueva Jerusalem<\/i> at Big Bay on the north side of the island.<\/span><\/div>\n
<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

Relations with the Ni-Vanuatu were initially friendly, though due to poor treatment of the local people by the Spanish, the situation soon soured and turned violent.<\/sup> Much of the crew, including Queir\u00f3s, were also suffering from ill health, with Queir\u00f3s’s mental state also deteriorating. The settlement was abandoned after a month, with Queir\u00f3s continuing his search for the southern continent.<\/p>\n

Europeans did not return until 1768, when the French explorer\u00a0Louis Antoine de Bougainville<\/a>\u00a0sailed by the islands on 22 May, naming them the Great\u00a0Cyclades<\/a>.<\/sup><\/sup>\u00a0Of the various French toponyms Bougainville devised, only\u00a0Pentecost Island<\/a> has stuck.<\/p>\n

The French landed on\u00a0Ambae<\/a>, trading with the native people in a peaceful manner, though Bougainville stated that they were later attacked, necessitating him to fire warning shots with his muskets, before his crew left and continued their voyage.<\/sup>\u00a0In July\u2013September 1774 the islands were explored extensively by British explorer\u00a0Captain James Cook<\/a>, who named them the New Hebrides, after the\u00a0Hebrides<\/a>\u00a0off the west coast of\u00a0Scotland<\/a>, a name that lasted until independence in 1980. Cook managed to maintain generally cordial relations with the Ni-Vanuatu by giving them presents and refraining from violence.<\/sup><\/p>\n

In 1789\u00a0William Bligh<\/a>\u00a0and the remainder of his crew sailed through the Banks Islands on their return voyage to\u00a0Timor<\/a>\u00a0following the ‘Mutiny on the Bounty<\/a>‘; Bligh later returned to the islands, naming them after his benefactor\u00a0Joseph Banks<\/a>.<\/p>\n

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James Cook\u00a0landing at\u00a0Tanna island, c. 1774<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n
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Whaleships were among the first regular visitors to this group of islands. The first recorded visit was by the <\/span>Rose<\/i>\u00a0in February 1804, and the last known visit by the New Bedford ship\u00a0<\/span>John and Winthrop<\/i>\u00a0in 1887.<\/span><\/sup>\u00a0In 1825, the trader\u00a0<\/span>Peter Dillon<\/a>‘s discovery of\u00a0<\/span>sandalwood<\/a>\u00a0on the island of\u00a0<\/span>Erromango<\/a>, highly valued as an incense in China where it could be traded for tea, resulted in rush of incomers that ended in 1830 after a clash between immigrant Polynesian workers and indigenous Ni-Vanuatu. Further sandalwood trees were found on Efate, Espiritu Santo, and Aneityum, prompting a series of boom and busts, though supplies were essentially exhausted by the mid-1860s, and the trade largely ceased.<\/span><\/div>\n
<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

During the 1860s,\u00a0planters<\/a> in Australia, Fiji, New Caledonia, and the Samoan islands, in need of laborers, encouraged a long-term indentured labour<\/a>\u00a0trade called “blackbirding<\/a>“. At the height of the labor trade, more than one-half the adult male population of several of the islands worked abroad. Because of this, and the poor conditions and abuse often faced by workers, as well the introduction of common diseases to which native Ni-Vanuatu had no immunity, the population of Vanuatu declined severely, with the current population being greatly reduced compared to pre-contact times. Greater oversight of the trade saw it gradually wind down, with Australia barring any further ‘blackbird’ laborers in 1906, followed by Fiji and Samoa in 1910 and 1913 respectively.<\/p>\n

From 1839 onwards\u00a0missionaries<\/a>, both\u00a0Roman Catholic<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0Protestant<\/a>, arrived on the islands.\u00a0At first they faced hostility, most notably with the killings of\u00a0John Williams<\/a>\u00a0and James Harris of the\u00a0London Missionary Society<\/a> on Erromango in 1839. Despite this they pressed on, resulting in many conversions; however, to the consternation of the European, this was often only skin-deep, with Ni-Vanuatu syncretizing Christianity with traditional kastom<\/a><\/i>\u00a0beliefs.<\/sup>\u00a0The Anglican\u00a0Melanesian Mission<\/a>\u00a0also took promising young converts for further training in New Zealand and\u00a0Norfolk Island<\/a>.<\/sup>\u00a0Presbyterian missionaries proved particularly successful on Aneityum, though less so on Tanna, with missionaries being repeatedly chased off the island by locals throughout the 1840s\u201360s.<\/sup> The hostile response may have been partly to blame with the waves of illnesses and deaths the missionaries inadvertently brought with them.<\/sup><\/p>\n

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John Williams<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Other European settlers also came, looking for land for\u00a0cotton plantations<\/a>, the first of these being Henry Ross Lewin on Tanna in 1865 (which he later abandoned).<\/sup>\u00a0When international cotton prices collapsed after the ending of the\u00a0American Civil War<\/a>, they switched to coffee,\u00a0cocoa<\/a>, bananas, and, most successfully,\u00a0coconuts<\/a>. Initially British subjects from Australia made up the majority of settlers, however with little support from the British government they frequently struggled to make a success of their settlements.<\/p>\n

French planters also began arriving, beginning with Ferdinand Chevillard on Efate in 1880, and later in larger numbers following the creation of the\u00a0Compagnie Caledonienne des Nouvelles-H\u00e9brides<\/i> (CCNH) by John Higginson in 1882 (a fiercely pro-French Irishman), which soon tipped the balance in favor of French subjects.\u00a0The French government took over the CCNH in 1894 and actively encouraged French settlement.<\/sup> By 1906 French settlers (at 401) outnumbered the British (228) almost two to one.<\/sup><\/p>\n

<\/span>Colonial era (1906\u20131980):<\/span><\/h3>\n
<\/div>\n

<\/span>Early period (1906\u20131945):<\/span><\/h4>\n
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Tanna men on a boat, taken c. 1905<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

The jumbling of French and British interests in the islands and the near lawlessness prevalent there brought petitions for one or another of the two powers to annex the territory.<\/sup>\u00a0The Convention of 16 October 1887 established a\u00a0joint naval commission<\/a> for the sole purpose of protecting French and British citizens, with no claim to jurisdiction over internal native affairs.\u00a0<\/sup><\/sup>Hostilities between settlers and Ni-Vanuatu were commonplace, often centering on disputes over land which had been purchased in dubious circumstances.<\/sup> There was pressure from French settlers in New Caledonia to annex the islands, though Britain was unwilling to relinquish their influence completely.<\/p>\n

As a result, in 1906 France and the United Kingdom agreed to administer the islands jointly; called the Anglo-French\u00a0Condominium<\/a>, it was a unique form of government, with two separate governmental, legal, judicial and financial systems that came together only in a (weak and ineffective) Joint Court. Land expropriation and exploitation of Ni-Vanuatu workers on plantations continued apace however. In an effort to curb the worst of the abuses, and with the support of the missionaries, the Condominium’s authority was extended via the Anglo-French Protocol of 1914, although this was not formally ratified until 1922.<\/sup> While this resulted in some improvements, labor abuses continued and Ni-Vanuatu were barred from acquiring the citizenship<\/a> of either power, being officially stateless. The underfunded Condominium government proved dysfunctional, with the duplication of administrations making effective governance difficult and time-consuming. Education, healthcare and other such services were left in the hands of the missionaries.<\/p>\n

During the 1920s\u201330s, indentured workers from\u00a0Vietnam<\/a>\u00a0(then part of\u00a0French Indochina<\/a>) came to work in the plantations in the New Hebrides.<\/sup>\u00a0By 1929 there were some 6,000 Vietnamese people in the New Hebrides.<\/sup><\/sup>\u00a0There was some social and political unrest among them in the 1940s due to the poor working conditions and the social effects of Allied troops, who were generally more sympathetic to their plight than the planters.<\/sup> Most Vietnamese were repatriated in 1946 and 1963, though a small Vietnamese community remains in Vanuatu today.<\/p>\n

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US Navy Hellcats on Espiritu Santo island in February 1944<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

The\u00a0Second World War<\/a>\u00a0brought immense change to the archipelago. The\u00a0fall of France<\/a>\u00a0to\u00a0Nazi Germany<\/a>\u00a0in 1940 allowed Britain to gain a level of greater authority on the islands.<\/sup>\u00a0The Australian military stationed a 2,000-strong force on Malakula in a bid to protect Australia from a possible Japanese invasion.<\/sup>\u00a0Following the Japanese\u00a0attack on Pearl Harbour<\/a>\u00a0on 7 December 1941 the United States joined the war on the Allied side; Japan soon advanced rapidly throughout Melanesia and was in possession of much of what is now Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands by April 1942, leaving the New Hebrides on the frontline of any further advance.<\/sup> To forestall this, from May 1942 US troops were stationed on the islands, where they built airstrips, roads, military bases on Efate and Espiritu Santo, and an array of other supporting infrastructure.<\/p>\n

At the peak of the deployment some 50,000 Americans were stationed on the two military bases, outnumbering the native population of roughly 40,000, with thousands more Allied troops passing through the islands at some point.<\/sup>\u00a0A small Ni-Vanuatu force of some 200 men (the New Hebrides Defence Force) was established to support the Americans, and thousands more were engaged in construction and maintenance work as part of the\u00a0Vanuatu Labor Corps<\/a>.<\/sup>\u00a0The American presence effectively sidelined the Anglo-French authorities for the duration of their stay, with the Americans’ more tolerant and friendly attitude to the Ni-Vanuatu, informal habits, relative wealth, and the presence of African-American troops serving with a degree of equality (albeit in a\u00a0segregated force<\/a>) seriously undermining the underlying ethos of colonial superiority.<\/p>\n

With the successful\u00a0reoccupation of the Solomons<\/a> in 1943 the New Hebrides lost their strategic importance, and the Americans withdrew in 1945, selling much of their equipment at bargain prices and dumping the rest in the sea.\u00a0The rapid American deployment and withdrawal led to growth in ‘cargo cults<\/a>‘, most notably that of\u00a0John Frum<\/a>, whereby Ni-Vanuatu hoped that by returning to traditional values whilst mimicking aspects of the American presence that ‘cargo’ (i.e. large quantities of American goods) would be delivered to them.<\/sup><\/sup> Meanwhile, the Condominium government returned, though understaffed and underfunded, it struggled to reassert its authority.<\/p>\n

<\/span>Lead-up to independence (1945\u20131980):<\/span><\/h4>\n
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1966 flag of the Anglo-French Condominium of the New Hebrides<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n
Decolonization began sweeping the European empires after the war, and from the 1950s the Condominium government began a somewhat belated campaign of modernization and economic development.<\/span><\/sup> Hospitals were built, doctors trained and immunization campaigns carried out.<\/span>\u00a0The inadequate mission-run school system was taken over and improved, with primary enrollment greatly increasing to be near-universal by 1970.<\/span><\/sup>\u00a0There was greater oversight of the plantations, with worker exploitation being clamped down on and Ni-Vanuatu paid higher wages.<\/span><\/sup><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

New industries, such as\u00a0cattle ranching<\/a>, commercial fishing and\u00a0manganese<\/a>\u00a0mining were established.<\/sup>\u00a0Ni-Vanuatu began gradually to take over more positions of power and influence within the economy and the church.<\/sup> Despite this the British and French still dominated the politics of the colony, with an Advisory Council set up in 1957 containing some Ni-Vanuatu representation having little power.<\/p>\n

However the economic development brought with it unintended consequences. In the 1960s many planters began fencing off and clearing large areas of bushland for cattle ranching, which were often deemed to be communally-held\u00a0kastom<\/i>\u00a0lands by Ni-Vanuatu.<\/sup>\u00a0On Espiritu Santo the\u00a0Nagriamel<\/a>\u00a0movement was founded in 1966 by Chief Buluk and\u00a0Jimmy Stevens<\/a> on a platform of opposing any further land clearances and gradual, Ni-Vanuatu-led, economic development.\u00a0The movement gained a large following, prompting a crackdown by the authorities, with Buluk and Stevens being arrested in 1967.<\/sup>\u00a0Upon their release they began to press for complete independence.<\/sup>\u00a0In 1971 Father\u00a0Walter Lini<\/a>\u00a0established another party \u2013 the New Hebrides Cultural Association, later renamed the\u00a0New Hebrides National Party<\/a>\u00a0(NHNP) \u2013 also focused on achieving independent and opposition to land expropriation.<\/sup> The NNDP first came to prominence in 1971, when the Condominium government was forced to intervene after a rash of land speculation by foreign nationals.<\/p>\n

Meanwhile, French settlers, and Francophone and mixed-race Ni-Vanuatu, established two separate parties on a platform of more gradual political development \u2013 the\u00a0Mouvement Autonamiste des Nouvelles-H\u00e9brides<\/i>\u00a0(MANH), based on Espiritu Santo, and the\u00a0Union des Communaut\u00e9s des Nouvelles-H\u00e9brides<\/i>\u00a0(UCNH) on Efate.<\/sup>\u00a0The parties aligned on linguistic and religious lines: the NHNP was seen as the party of Anglophone Protestants, and were backed by the British who wished to exit the colony altogether, whereas the MANH, UCNH, Nagriamel and others (collectively known as the ‘Moderates’) represented Catholic Francophone interests, and a more gradual path to independence.<\/sup> France backed these groups as they were keen to maintain their influence in the region, most especially in their mineral-rich colony of New Caledonia where they were attempting to suppress an independence movement.<\/sup><\/p>\n

Meanwhile, economic development continued, with numerous banks and financial centers opening up in the early 1970s to take advantage of the territory’s tax haven<\/a> status. A mini-building boom took off in Port Vila and, following the building of a deep-sea wharf, cruise ship tourism grew rapidly, with annual arrivals reaching 40,000 by 1977. The boom encouraged increasing urbanization and the populations of Port Vila and Luganville<\/a> grew rapidly.<\/sup><\/p>\n

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Flag of the short-lived Republic of Vemarana<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n
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In November 1974 the British and French met and agreed to create a Representative Assembly in the colony, based partly on universal suffrage and partly on appointed persons representing various interest groups.<\/span><\/sup>\u00a0The first\u00a0<\/span>election<\/a> took place in November 1975, resulting in an overall victory for the NHNP. <\/span>The Moderates disputed the results, with Jimmy Stevens threatening to secede and declare independence.<\/span><\/sup> The Condominium’s Resident Commissioners decided to postpone the opening of the Assembly, though the two sides proved unable to agree on a solution, prompting protests and counter-protests, some of which turned violent.<\/span> After discussions and some fresh elections in disputed areas, the Assembly finally convened in November 1976.<\/span>\u00a0The NHNP renamed itself the\u00a0<\/span>Vanua’aku Pati<\/a> (VP) in 1977, and now supported immediate independence under a strong central government and an Anglicization of the islands. The Moderates meanwhile supported a more gradual transition to independence and a federal system, plus the maintenance of French as an official language.<\/span><\/div>\n
<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

In March 1977 a joint Anglo-French and Ni-Vanuatu conference was held in London, at which it was agreed to hold fresh Assembly elections and later an independence referendum in 1980; the VP boycotted the conference and the subsequent\u00a0election<\/a> in November. They set up a parallel ‘People’s Provisional Government’ which had de facto control of many areas, prompting violent confrontations with Moderates and the Condominium government.<\/sup><\/p>\n

A compromise was eventually brokered, a Government of National Unity formed under a new constitution, and fresh\u00a0elections<\/a> held in November 1979, which the VP won with a comfortable majority. Independence was now scheduled for 30 July 1980. Performing less well than expected, the Moderates disputed the results.<\/p>\n

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Port Vila<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Tensions continued throughout 1980. Violent confrontations occurred between VP and Moderate supporters on several islands.<\/sup>\u00a0On Espiritu Santo Nagriamel and Moderate activists under Jimmy Stevens, funded by the American\u00a0libertarian<\/a> organization Phoenix Foundation<\/a>, took over the island’s government in January and declared the independent Republic of Vemarana, prompting VP supporters to flee and the central government to institute a blockade.\u00a0In May an abortive Moderate rebellion broke out on Tanna, in the course of which one of their leaders was shot and killed.<\/sup> The British and French sent in troops in July in a bid to forestall the Vemarana secessionists, however the French, still ambivalent about independence, effectively neutered the force, prompting a collapse of law and order on Espiritu Santo resulting in large scale looting.<\/p>\n

<\/span>Independent Vanuatu (1980\u2013present):<\/span><\/h3>\n

The New Hebrides, now renamed Vanuatu, achieved independence as planned on 30 July 1980 under Prime Minister\u00a0Walter Lini<\/a>, with a ceremonial\u00a0President<\/a> replacing the Resident Commissioners. The Anglo-French forces withdrew in August, and Lini called in troops from\u00a0Papua New Guinea<\/a>, sparking the brief ‘Coconut War<\/a>‘ against\u00a0Jimmy Stevens<\/a>‘s Vemarana separatists. The PNG forces quickly quelled the Vemarana revolt and Stevens surrendered on 1 September; he was later jailed. Lini remained in office until 1991, running an Anglophone-dominated government and winning both the 1983 and 1987 elections.<\/sup><\/p>\n

In foreign affairs Lini joined the\u00a0Non Aligned Movement<\/a>, opposed\u00a0Apartheid<\/a>\u00a0in South Africa and all forms of colonialism, established links with\u00a0Libya<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0Cuba<\/a>, and opposed the French presence in New Caledonia and their nuclear testing in\u00a0French Polynesia<\/a>. Opposition to Lini’s tight grip on power grew and in 1987, after he had suffered a stroke while on a visit to the United States, a section of the Vanua’aku Pati<\/a>\u00a0(VP) under\u00a0Barak Sop\u00e9<\/a>\u00a0broke off to form a new party (the\u00a0Melanesian Progressive Party<\/a>, MPP), and an attempt was made by President\u00a0Ati George Sokomanu<\/a> to unseat Lini. This failed, and Lini became increasingly distrustful of his VP colleagues, firing anyone he deemed to be disloyal.<\/p>\n

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Walter Lini<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

One such person,\u00a0Donald Kalpokas<\/a>, subsequently declared himself to be VP leader, splitting the party in two.<\/sup>\u00a0On 6 September 1991 a vote of no confidence removed Lini from power;<\/sup>\u00a0Kalpokas became Prime Minister, and Lini formed a new party, the\u00a0National United Party<\/a> (NUP).\u00a0Meanwhile, the economy had entered a downturn, with foreign investors and foreign aid put off by Lini’s flirtation with Communist states and tourist numbers down due to the political turmoil, compounded by a crash in the price of\u00a0copra<\/a>, Vanuatu’s main export.<\/sup>\u00a0As a result, the Francophone\u00a0Union of Moderate Parties<\/a>\u00a0(UMP) won the\u00a01991 election<\/a>, but not with enough seats to form a majority. A coalition was thus formed with Lini’s NUP, with the UMP’s\u00a0Maxime Carlot Korman<\/a> becoming Prime Minister.<\/p>\n

Since then Vanuatuan politics have been unstable, seeing a series of fractious coalition governments and the use of no confidence votes resulting in frequent changes of prime ministers. However, the democratic system as a whole has been maintained and Vanuatu remains a peaceful and reasonably prosperous state. Throughout most of the 1990s the UMP were in power, the prime ministership switching between UMP rivals Korman and\u00a0Serge Vohor<\/a>, and the UMP instituting a more free market approach to the economy, cutting the public sector, improving opportunities for Francophone Ni-Vanuatu and renewing ties with France.\u00a0The government struggled however with splits within their NUP coalition partner and a series of strikes within the Civil Service in 1993\u20134, the latter dealt with by a wave of firings.<\/sup>\u00a0Financial scandals dogged both Korman and Vohor, with the latter implicated in a scheme to sell\u00a0Vanuatu passports<\/a>\u00a0to foreigners.<\/sup><\/sup><\/p>\n

In 1996 Vohor and President\u00a0Jean-Marie L\u00e9y\u00e9<\/a>\u00a0were briefly abducted by the\u00a0Vanuatu Mobile Force<\/a>\u00a0over a pay dispute and later released unharmed.<\/sup><\/sup>\u00a0A riot occurred in Port Vila in 1998 when savers attempted to withdraw funds from the\u00a0Vanuatu National Provident Fund<\/a> following allegations of financial impropriety, prompting the government to declare a brief state of emergency.\u00a0<\/sup><\/sup>A Comprehensive Reform Program was enacted in the 1998 with the aim of improving economic performance and cracking down on government corruption.<\/sup>\u00a0At the\u00a01998 Vanuatuan general election<\/a> the UMP were unseated by the VP under Donald Kalpokas. However Kalpokas lasted only a year, resigning when threatened with a no confidence vote, being replaced by Barak Sop\u00e9 of the MPP in 1999, who himself was unseated in a confidence vote in 2001. Despite the political uncertainty Vanuatu’s economy continued to grow in this period, fueled by high demand for Vanuatu beef, tourism, remittances from foreign workers, and large aid packages from the\u00a0Asian Development Bank<\/a>\u00a0(in 1997) and the US\u00a0Millennium Challenge<\/a>\u00a0fund (in 2005).<\/sup>\u00a0Vanuatu was removed from the\u00a0OECD<\/a>\u00a0list of ‘uncooperative tax havens’ in 2003 and joined the\u00a0World Trade Organization<\/a> in 2011.<\/sup><\/p>\n

\n
\n
\"\"<\/a>
Devastation caused by Cyclone Pam in 2015<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n
\n
T<\/span>he country was devastated by\u00a0<\/span>Cyclone Pam<\/a> in 2015, which resulted in 16 deaths and enormous destruction.<\/span><\/div>\n
<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

A corruption investigation in 2015 resulted in the conviction of numerous MPs in Kilman’s government for bribery, including former PM Moana Carcasses Kalosil.\u00a0His authority severely weakened, Kilman lost the\u00a02016 Vanuatuan general election<\/a>\u00a0to\u00a0Charlot Salwai<\/a>‘s\u00a0Reunification Movement for Change<\/a>\u00a0(RMC). Salwai in turn lost the\u00a02020 Vanuatuan general election<\/a>\u00a0amidst allegations of perjury, bringing back in the VP under\u00a0Bob Loughman<\/a>\u00a0as the country dealt with the aftermath of\u00a0Cyclone Harold<\/a>\u00a0and the global\u00a0COVID-19 pandemic<\/a>.<\/sup><\/p>\n

Vanuatu was one of the last places on Earth to have avoided a coronavirus outbreak, recording its first case of COVID-19 in November 2020.[95]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

Geography:<\/span><\/h2>\n
<\/div>\n
\n
\n
\"\"<\/a>
Map of Vanuatu\u00a0<\/span><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

Vanuatu is a Y-shaped archipelago consisting of about 83 relatively small, geologically newer islands of volcanic origin<\/a> (65 of them inhabited), with about 1,300 kilometers (810 mi) between the most northern and southern islands.\u00a0Two of these islands (Matthew and Hunter<\/a>) are also claimed and controlled by France as part of the French\u00a0collectivity<\/a> of New Caledonia.<\/p>\n

The fourteen of Vanuatu’s islands that have surface areas of more than 100 square kilometers (39 sq mi) are, from largest to smallest:\u00a0Espiritu Santo<\/a>,\u00a0Malakula<\/a>,\u00a0Efate<\/a>,\u00a0Erromango<\/a>,\u00a0Ambrym<\/a>,\u00a0Tanna<\/a>,\u00a0Pentecost<\/a>,\u00a0Epi<\/a>,\u00a0Ambae<\/a>\u00a0or Aoba,\u00a0Gaua<\/a>,\u00a0Vanua Lava<\/a>,\u00a0Maewo<\/a>,\u00a0Malo<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0Aneityum<\/a>\u00a0or Anatom. The nation’s largest towns are the capital\u00a0Port Vila<\/a>, on Efate, and\u00a0Luganville<\/a>\u00a0on Espiritu Santo.<\/sup>\u00a0The highest point in Vanuatu is\u00a0Mount Tabwemasana<\/a>, at 1,879 metres (6,165\u00a0ft), on the island of Espiritu Santo.<\/p>\n

Vanuatu’s total area is roughly 12,274 square kilometers (4,739 sq mi),<\/sup> of which its land surface is very limited (roughly 4,700 square kilometers (1,800 sq mi)). Most of the islands are steep, with unstable soils and little permanent fresh water. One estimate, made in 2005, is that only 9% of land is used for agriculture (7% with permanent crops, plus 2% considered arable). The shoreline is mostly rocky with fringing reefs and no\u00a0continental shelf<\/a>, dropping rapidly into the ocean depths.<\/sup><\/p>\n

There are several active\u00a0volcanoes<\/a>\u00a0in Vanuatu, including\u00a0Lopevi<\/a>,\u00a0Mount Yasur<\/a>\u00a0and several underwater volcanoes.\u00a0Volcanic activity<\/a>\u00a0is common, with an ever-present danger of a major eruption; a nearby undersea eruption of 6.4 magnitude occurred in November 2008 with no casualties, and an eruption occurred in 1945.<\/sup> Vanuatu is recognized as a distinct terrestrial ecoregion<\/a>, which is known as the\u00a0Vanuatu rain forests<\/a>.<\/sup>\u00a0It is part of the\u00a0Australasian realm<\/a>, which includes New Caledonia, the Solomon Islands, Australia, New Guinea and New Zealand.<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/a>
Topographic Map of Vanuatu and New Caledonia<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Vanuatu’s population (estimated in 2008 as growing 2.4% annually)<\/sup> is placing increasing pressure on land and resources for agriculture, grazing, hunting, and fishing. 90% of Vanuatu households fish and consume fish, which has caused intense fishing pressure near villages and the depletion of near-shore fish species. While well-vegetated, most islands show signs of deforestation. The islands have been logged, particularly of high-value timber, subjected to wide-scale slash-and-burn agriculture, and converted to coconut plantations and cattle ranches, and now show evidence of increased soil erosion and landslides.<\/p>\n

Many upland watersheds are being deforested and degraded, and fresh water is becoming increasingly scarce. Proper waste disposal, as well as water and air pollution, are becoming troublesome issues around urban areas and large villages. Additionally, the lack of employment opportunities in industry and inaccessibility to markets have combined to lock rural families into a subsistence or self-reliance mode, putting tremendous pressure on local ecosystems.<\/sup><\/p>\n

Economy:<\/h2>\n

The four mainstays of the economy are agriculture, tourism, offshore\u00a0financial services<\/a>, and\u00a0raising cattle<\/a>.<\/p>\n

There is substantial fishing activity, although this industry does not bring in much foreign exchange. Exports include\u00a0copra<\/a>,\u00a0kava<\/a>, beef,\u00a0cocoa<\/a>\u00a0and timber; and imports include machinery and equipment, foodstuffs, and fuels. In contrast, mining activity is very low.<\/p>\n

\n
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\"\"<\/a>
A proportional representation of Vanuatu exports, 2019<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n
\n
\n

Although\u00a0manganese<\/a>\u00a0mining halted in 1978, there was an agreement in 2006 to export manganese already mined but not yet exported. The country has no known petroleum deposits. A small light-industry sector caters to the local market. Tax revenues come mainly from import duties and a 15%\u00a0VAT<\/a>\u00a0on goods and services. Economic development is hindered by dependence on relatively few commodity exports, vulnerability to natural disasters, and long distances between constituent islands and from main markets.<\/p>\n

Agriculture is used for consumption as well as for export. It provides a living for 65% of the population. In particular, production of copra and kava create substantial revenue. Many farmers have been abandoning cultivation of food crops, and use earnings from kava cultivation to buy food.<\/sup>\u00a0Kava has also been used in ceremonial exchanges between clans and villages.<\/sup>\u00a0Cocoa is also grown for foreign exchange.<\/sup><\/p>\n

In 2007, the number of households engaged in fishing was 15,758, mainly for consumption (99%), and the average number of fishing trips was 3 per week.<\/sup>\u00a0The tropical climate enables growing of a wide range of fruits and vegetables and spices, including banana, garlic,\u00a0cabbage<\/a>, peanuts,\u00a0pineapples<\/a>,\u00a0sugarcane<\/a>,\u00a0taro<\/a>,\u00a0yams<\/a>,\u00a0watermelons<\/a>, leaf spices, carrots,\u00a0radishes<\/a>,\u00a0eggplants<\/a>,\u00a0vanilla<\/a>\u00a0(both green and cured),\u00a0pepper<\/a>,\u00a0cucumber<\/a>\u00a0and many others.<\/sup>\u00a0<\/sup><\/p>\n

Tourism brings in much-needed foreign exchange. Vanuatu is widely recognized as one of the premier vacation destinations for scuba divers wishing to explore coral reefs of the South Pacific region.<\/span><\/sup>\u00a0A further significant attraction to scuba divers is the wreck of the US ocean liner and converted troop carrier\u00a0<\/span>SS President Coolidge<\/a><\/i>\u00a0on\u00a0<\/span>Espiritu Santo<\/a> island. Sunk during World War II, it is one of the largest shipwrecks in the world that is accessible for recreational diving. Tourism increased 17% from 2007 to 2008 to reach 196,134 arrivals, according to one estimate.<\/span>\u00a0The 2008 total is a sharp increase from 2000, in which there were only 57,000 visitors (of these, 37,000 were from Australia, 8,000 from New Zealand, 6,000 from New Caledonia, 3,000 from Europe, 1,000 from North America, 1,000 from Japan.<\/span><\/sup>\u00a0Tourism has been promoted, in part, by Vanuatu being the site of several reality-TV shows. The ninth season of the reality TV series\u00a0<\/span>Survivor<\/a><\/i>\u00a0was filmed on Vanuatu, entitled\u00a0<\/span>Survivor: Vanuatu<\/a>\u2014Islands of Fire<\/i>. Two years later, Australia’s\u00a0<\/span>Celebrity Survivor<\/a><\/i> was filmed at the same location used by the US version. In mid-2002, the government stepped up efforts to boost tourism.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

\n
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\"\"<\/a>
A market hall in Port Vila<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n
\n
Financial services are an important part of the economy. Vanuatu is a <\/span>tax haven<\/a>\u00a0that until 2008 did not release account information to other governments or law-enforcement agencies. International pressure, mainly from Australia, influenced the Vanuatu government to begin adhering to international norms to improve transparency. In Vanuatu, there is no\u00a0<\/span>income tax<\/a>,\u00a0<\/span>withholding tax<\/a>,\u00a0<\/span>capital gains tax<\/a>,\u00a0<\/span>inheritance tax<\/a>, or exchange control. Many international ship-management companies choose to flag their ships under the Vanuatu flag, because of the tax benefits and favorable labor laws (Vanuatu is a full member of the\u00a0International Maritime Organization<\/a> and applies its international conventions). Vanuatu is recognized as a “<\/span>flag of convenience<\/a>” country.<\/span>\u00a0Several file-sharing groups, such as the providers of the\u00a0<\/span>KaZaA<\/a>\u00a0network of\u00a0<\/span>Sharman Networks<\/a>\u00a0and the developers of\u00a0<\/span>WinMX<\/a>, have chosen to incorporate in Vanuatu to avoid regulation and legal challenges. In response to foreign concerns the government has promised to tighten regulation of its\u00a0<\/span>offshore financial center<\/a>. Vanuatu receives\u00a0<\/span>foreign aid<\/a>\u00a0mainly from Australia and New Zealand.<\/span><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

 <\/p>\n

\n
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\"\"<\/a>
Commercial agriculture, North Efate<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n
\n
Raising cattle leads to beef production for export. One estimate in 2007 for the total value of cattle heads sold was 135 million vatu; cattle were first introduced into the area from Australia by British planter James Paddon.<\/span>\u00a0On average, each household has 5 pigs and 16 chickens, and while cattle are the “most important livestock”, pigs and chickens are important for subsistence agriculture as well as playing a significant role in ceremonies and customs (especially pigs).<\/span><\/sup> There are 30 commercial farms (sole proprietorships (37%), partnerships (23%), corporations (17%)), with revenues of 533\u00a0million vatu and expenses of 329\u00a0million vatu in 2007.<\/span><\/div>\n
<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

The economy grew about 6% in the early 2000s.<\/sup>\u00a0This is higher than in the 1990s, when GDP rose less than 3%, on average.<\/p>\n

Transportation:<\/h2>\n

Vanuatu<\/a>‘s undeveloped road system, with fewer than 100 miles of paved roads, consists mostly of dirt tracks suitable only for four-wheel-drive vehicles.<\/sup>\u00a0Every island has one or two short airstrips where\u00a0Vanair<\/a>\u2019s\u00a0Twin Otter<\/a>\u00a0planes land two or three times weekly.<\/sup> In addition, every island has a small port or wharf where small cargo ships and boats regularly dock.<\/p>\n

\n
\n
\"\"<\/a>
An inter-island ferry<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n
\n
After arrival on an island, transportation is usually via pickup truck, foot, or small boat.<\/span><\/sup>\u00a0Bicycles are becoming popular in Vanuatu.\u00a0<\/span>Port Vila<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0<\/span>Luganville<\/a>\u00a0have numerous taxis and mass-transit vans.<\/span><\/sup>\u00a0There are no railways in Vanuatu, although there was a small rail line on\u00a0<\/span>Efate<\/a> during the colonial era.<\/span><\/div>\n
<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

Vanuatu’s main harbors are\u00a0Forari<\/a>,\u00a0Port-Vila<\/a>, Santo (Espiritu Santo<\/a>).<\/p>\n

Vanuatu’s main airport is Bauerfield International Airport in Port Vila.<\/a><\/p>\n

Flag of Vanuatu:<\/h2>\n

The\u00a0flag of\u00a0Vanuatu<\/a> was adopted on 18 February 1980.<\/p>\n

In 1977 a flag of almost the same colors and symbolism as the future national flag was designed by local artist Kalontas Malon and adopted by the Vanua’aku Pati<\/a>. When the party led the New Hebrides to\u00a0independence<\/a> as Vanuatu in 1980, the colors of the party flag (red, green, black and yellow) were chosen to be the basis for the national flag on Independence Day, 30 July 1980. A parliamentary committee chose the final design based on submissions from local artists.<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/a>
Flag of Vanuatu<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n
\n
\n
<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

The green represents the richness of the islands, the red symbolizes blood<\/a>\u00a0which unites\u00a0humanity<\/a>\u00a0as humans, and the black the\u00a0ni-Vanuatu<\/a> people.\u00a0The\u00a0Prime Minister of Vanuatu<\/a>, Father\u00a0Walter Lini<\/a>, requested the inclusion of yellow and black\u00a0fimbriations<\/a>\u00a0to make the black stand out. The yellow Y-shape represents the shape of Vanuatu islands on the map and the light of\u00a0the gospel<\/a>\u00a0going through the pattern of the islands in the\u00a0Pacific Ocean<\/a>\u00a0(approximately 83% of the people of Vanuatu profess\u00a0Christianity<\/a>).<\/sup><\/p>\n

The emblem in the black is a boar’s\u00a0tusk<\/a>\u00a0\u2014 the symbol of customs and tradition but also prosperity. Its worn as a\u00a0pendant<\/a>\u00a0on the islands \u2013 along with two leaves of the local\u00a0namele<\/i><\/a>\u00a0tree. These leaves are supposed to be a token of\u00a0peace<\/a>, and their 39 leaflets represent the original 39 members of the\u00a0Parliament of Vanuatu<\/a>.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

The flag of Vanuatu was adopted on 18 February 1980.<\/p>\n

In 1977 a flag of almost the same colors and symbolism as the future national flag was designed by local artist Kalontas Malon and adopted by the Vanua’aku Pati. When the party led the New Hebrides to independence as Vanuatu in 1980, the colors of the party flag (red, green, black and yellow) were chosen to be the basis for the national flag on Independence Day, 30 July 1980. A parliamentary committee chose the final design based on submissions from local artists.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":9706,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"site-sidebar-layout":"default","site-content-layout":"default","ast-site-content-layout":"","site-content-style":"default","site-sidebar-style":"default","ast-global-header-display":"","ast-banner-title-visibility":"","ast-main-header-display":"","ast-hfb-above-header-display":"","ast-hfb-below-header-display":"","ast-hfb-mobile-header-display":"","site-post-title":"","ast-breadcrumbs-content":"","ast-featured-img":"","footer-sml-layout":"","theme-transparent-header-meta":"default","adv-header-id-meta":"","stick-header-meta":"default","header-above-stick-meta":"","header-main-stick-meta":"","header-below-stick-meta":"","astra-migrate-meta-layouts":"default","ast-page-background-enabled":"default","ast-page-background-meta":{"desktop":{"background-color":"","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-gradient":""},"tablet":{"background-color":"","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-gradient":""},"mobile":{"background-color":"","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-gradient":""}},"ast-content-background-meta":{"desktop":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-5)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-gradient":""},"tablet":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-5)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-gradient":""},"mobile":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-5)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-gradient":""}},"footnotes":""},"categories":[4],"tags":[59,5,6,7,29,30,44,60],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/9189"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=9189"}],"version-history":[{"count":1,"href":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/9189\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":9707,"href":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/9189\/revisions\/9707"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/9706"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=9189"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=9189"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.smoketreemanor.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=9189"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}